Red wine

Alcoholic beverage produced by fermenting red grape must in contact with the skins (maceration), which extract anthocyanins and tannins. Styles and sensory profiles vary by grape variety, terroir, winemaking (maceration regime, MLF, maturation in steel/wood), and vintage.

Caloric value (per 100 ml)
~70–85 kcal/100 ml (driven by % vol alcohol and residual sugar). A 150 ml glass: ~105–130 kcal.

Key constituents

• Ethanol: typically 12–15% vol.

• Residual sugar (RS): dry <4 g/L (up to 9 g/L if acidity is high); off-dry/medium-dry 4–12 (9–18) g/L; medium-sweet 12–45 g/L; sweet >45 g/L.

• Organic acids: tartaric (dominant), malic (partly degraded in MLF), lactic (from MLF). TA typically 4.5–7.0 g/L (as tartaric). pH 3.2–3.8.

• Polyphenols: anthocyanins (color), tannins (astringency/structure), flavonols; TPC/TPI used as indices.

• Sulfur dioxide (SO₂): free/total per style and regulations.

• Volatiles: esters, higher alcohols, aldehydes, acetic acid (VA).

Lipid profile (per 100 ml; always reported)
Total fat <0.1 g/100 ml (negligible). SFA/MUFA/PUFA (n-6/n-3): trace, not nutritionally significant. Trans/CLA: absent. Cholesterol: absent.

Production process
Harvest → destem/crush → sulfiting (if used) → maceration–fermentation with cap management (pump-over/délestage/punch-down) → run-off and pressing → malolactic fermentation (MLF) → maturation (steel, concrete, wood; optional fine-lees aging) → clarification/filtration and stabilizations (protein/tartrate) → bottling with controlled dissolved oxygen/TPO.

Sensory and technological properties

• Color: ruby to garnet with age; intensity around 520 nm.

• Aroma: red/black fruit, floral/spice; possible oak notes (vanilla, toast).

• Palate: body, tannin (astringency), acidity (freshness), alcohol (warmth), length.

• Stability: risks of oxidation (light/O₂), reduction (H₂S), and protein/tartrate haze if not stabilized.

Food uses

• Beverage: serve 16–18 °C (structured styles), 14–16 °C (young/light).

• Cooking: braises, stews, reductions/sauces, marinades; use quality consistent with the dish.

• Pairings: red meats and savory white meats, game, aged cheeses, mushrooms, bean stews, tomato-based dishes.

Nutrition and health
Provides polyphenols (in-vitro antioxidant activity) but also alcohol: consumption should be moderate and is contraindicated for minors, during pregnancy/lactation, when driving, or with incompatible therapies. Possible biogenic amines (histamine, tyramine) in some styles; sodium is low unless adjusted technologically.

For years, efforts have been made to answer the question regarding the safe amount of alcohol intake, but controversies remain. Observational studies advocate moderate alcohol consumption following a Mediterranean pattern (red wine with meals avoiding binge drinking) as the best option for current drinkers. However, agencies such as the IARC recommend abstention from alcohol as it is a potent carcinogen.(1)

Quality and specifications (typical topics)
% vol, RS, TA (g/L), pH, VA (acetic acid), SO₂ free/total, color 420/520/620 nm, TPC/TPI, DO/TPO.
Microbiology: control of Brettanomyces, lactic/acetic bacteria; strict line hygiene.
Sensory: absence of faults (cork taint TCA, oxidation, reduction, phenolic Brett).

Storage and shelf life

• Unopened bottles: 12–16 °C, dark, RH 65–75%; horizontal if corked; avoid temperature swings/vibration.

• After opening: reclose (vacuum or inert gas) and consume within 2–5 days (young styles) under refrigeration; structured wines may last longer.

• Light: avoid exposure (photo-oxidation/color shift).

Allergens and safety
Sulfites: mandatory labeling if >10 mg/L. Possible fining aids from egg/milk/fish (albumin, caseinates, isinglass): declare if residues remain. Egg lysozyme may be used (allergenic).

INCI functions in cosmetics
Possible entries: Wine Extract, Vitis Vinifera (Grape) Fruit/Leaf Extract. Roles: antioxidant, skin conditioning, masking (ethanol use requires tolerance assessment).

Troubleshooting

• Cork taint (TCA) → replace bottle; prevention via cork supply control.

• Oxidized (stewed apple, walnut) → excess O₂/light → improve barrier and DO/TPO control.

• Reduced (rotten egg/burnt rubber) → H₂S/mercaptans → aerate/decant; prevent in cellar.

• Brett (clove/leather phenolics) → maintain hygiene and SO₂/filtration control.

• Tartrate crystals in bottle → harmless; stabilize/decant if undesired.

Sustainability and supply chain
Low-impact viticulture (soil/water stewardship, biodiversity), reduced pesticides, renewable energy in winery, water reuse/effluent treatment to BOD/COD targets, lightweight glass or alternative packs, optimized closure OTR, temperature-controlled logistics.

Conclusion
Red wine combines color and tannin structure with wide aromatic range. Quality depends on fruit, maceration/fermentations, MLF, maturation, and oxygen/light control; for consumers, serving (temperature, aeration) and moderation are key.

Mini-glossary
% vol — alcoholic strength by volume
RS — residual sugar (g/L)
TA — titratable acidity (g/L as tartaric)
pH — active acidity (stability/color)
MLF — malolactic fermentation
VA — volatile acidity (acetic acid)
SO₂ — sulfur dioxide (free/total)
TPC/TPI — total polyphenols content/index
DO/TPO — dissolved oxygen / total package oxygen
OTR — oxygen transmission rate (closures)
TCA — 2,4,6-trichloroanisole (cork taint)
SFA/MUFA/PUFA (n-6/n-3) — saturated/monounsaturated/polyunsaturated fatty acids (here negligible)
BOD/COD — biochemical/chemical oxygen demand (effluent load)

References__________________________________________________________________________

(1) Barbería-Latasa M, Gea A, Martínez-González MA. Alcohol, Drinking Pattern, and Chronic Disease. Nutrients. 2022 May 7;14(9):1954. doi: 10.3390/nu14091954. 

Abstract. This review discusses the inconsistent recommendations on alcohol consumption and its association with chronic disease, highlighting the need for an evidence-based consensus. Alcohol is an addictive substance consumed worldwide, especially in European countries. Recommendations on alcohol consumption are controversial. On one hand, many nonrandomized studies defend that moderate consumption has a beneficial cardiovascular effect or a lower risk of all-cause mortality. On the other hand, alcohol is associated with an increased risk of cancer, neurological diseases, or injuries, among others. For years, efforts have been made to answer the question regarding the safe amount of alcohol intake, but controversies remain. Observational studies advocate moderate alcohol consumption following a Mediterranean pattern (red wine with meals avoiding binge drinking) as the best option for current drinkers. However, agencies such as the IARC recommend abstention from alcohol as it is a potent carcinogen. In this context, more randomized trial with larger sample size and hard clinical endpoints should be conducted to clarify the available evidence and provide clinicians with support for their clinical practice.

Belli F, Bandinelli F, Bandinelli R, Pagano M. Red wine antioxidant properties implications in rheumatic diseases: exploring clonal variations in resveratrol and other bioactive compounds. Clin Exp Rheumatol. 2025 Oct 13. doi: 10.55563/clinexprheumatol/pybjjj.

Abstract. Resveratrol (RS), a non-flavonoid polyphenol, is a well-recognised anti-inflammatory compound of red wine. This narrative review aims to explore the mechanisms underlying its potential antioxidant properties in osteoarthritis (OA), rheumatoid arthritis (RA), spondyloarthritis (SpA), and osteoporosis (OP), as well as its clonal variation in red wine and future perspectives for clinical applications.Although human data remain limited and sometimes controversial, recent studies in animal models have demonstrated that RS can reduce inflammation by interacting with various cellular pathways, including the activation of sirtuins, which regulate oxidative stress and bone density in OA and OP, and modulating gut microbiota, as central inflammatory trigger for SpA and RA.While RS effects and toxicity are dosedependent, its concentration in red wine may vary depending on grape clone selection and maceration time, potentially increasing its levels and associated health benefits. Additionally, pterostilbene, a compound structurally related to RS, has shown greater bioavailability and promising antioxidant effects. The rapid metabolism of RS in the human body remains a limitation for its therapeutic use, which might be improved through combination with other antioxidants such as vitamins C and E, curcumin, and quercetin, offering synergistic anti-inflammatory effects.Moreover, advanced delivery systems, including nanotechnology, have been developed to enhance RS absorption and stability. Continued research is essential to better understand the role of RS and other antioxidants, and to optimise their therapeutic potential in the near future.

Serio F, Imbriani G, Acito M, Moretti M, Fanizzi FP, De Donno A, Valacchi G. Moderate red wine intake and cardiovascular health protection: a literature review. Food Funct. 2023 Jul 17;14(14):6346-6362. doi: 10.1039/d3fo01004j. 

Abstract. Wine is a complex matrix consisting primarily of water (86%) and ethyl alcohol (12%), as well as other different molecules, such as polyphenols, organic acids, tannins, compound minerals, vitamins and biologically active compounds which play an important role in the specific characteristics of each wine. According to the Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2015-2020, moderate red wine consumption-defined as up to two units of alcohol per day for men and up to one unit of alcohol per day for women-significantly reduces the risk of cardiovascular disease which represents the major causes of mortality, and disability, in developed countries. We reviewed the available literature concerning the potential relationship between moderate red wine consumption and cardiovascular health. We searched Medline, Scopus and Web of Science (WOS) for randomized controlled studies and case-control studies published from 2002 to 2022. A total of 27 articles were selected for the review. According to epidemiological evidence, drinking red wine in moderation lowers the risk of developing cardiovascular disease and diabetes. Red wine contains both alcoholic and non-alcoholic ingredients; however, it is yet unclear which is to blame for these effects. Combining wine with the diet of healthy individuals may add additional benefits. New studies should focus more on the characterization of the individual components of wine, to allow the analysis and study of the impact of each of them on the prevention and treatment of certain diseases.

Lippi G, Franchini M, Favaloro EJ, Targher G. Moderate red wine consumption and cardiovascular disease risk: beyond the "French paradox". Semin Thromb Hemost. 2010 Feb;36(1):59-70. doi: 10.1055/s-0030-1248725.

Abstract. The term FRENCH PARADOX was coined in 1992 to describe the relatively low incidence of cardiovascular disease in the French population, despite a relatively high dietary intake of saturated fats, and potentially attributable to the consumption of red wine. After nearly 20 years, several studies have investigated the fascinating, overwhelmingly positive biological and clinical associations of red wine consumption with cardiovascular disease and mortality. Light to moderate intake of red wine produces a kaleidoscope of potentially beneficial effects that target all phases of the atherosclerotic process, from atherogenesis (early plaque development and growth) to vessel occlusion (flow-mediated dilatation, thrombosis). Such beneficial effects involve cellular signaling mechanisms, interactions at the genomic level, and biochemical modifications of cellular and plasma components. Red wine components, especially alcohol, resveratrol, and other polyphenolic compounds, may decrease oxidative stress, enhance cholesterol efflux from vessel walls (mainly by increasing levels of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol), and inhibit lipoproteins oxidation, macrophage cholesterol accumulation, and foam-cell formation. These components may also increase nitric oxide bioavailability, thereby antagonizing the development of endothelial dysfunction, decrease blood viscosity, improve insulin sensitivity, counteract platelet hyperactivity, inhibit platelet adhesion to fibrinogen-coated surfaces, and decrease plasma levels of von Willebrand factor, fibrinogen, and coagulation factor VII. Light to moderate red wine consumption is also associated with a favorable genetic modulation of fibrinolytic proteins, ultimately increasing the surface-localized endothelial cell fibrinolysis. Overall, therefore, the "French paradox" may have its basis within a milieu containing several key molecules, so that favorable cardiovascular benefits might be primarily attributable to combined, additive, or perhaps synergistic effects of alcohol and other wine components on atherogenesis, coagulation, and fibrinolysis. Conversely, chronic heavy alcohol consumption and binge drinking are associated with increased risk of cardiovascular events. In conclusion, although mounting evidence strongly supports beneficial cardiovascular effects of moderate red wine consumption (one to two drinks per day; 10-30 g alcohol) in most populations, clinical advice to abstainers to initiate daily alcohol consumption has not yet been substantiated in the literature and must be considered with caution on an individual basis.

Lombardo M, Feraco A, Camajani E, Caprio M, Armani A. Health Effects of Red Wine Consumption: A Narrative Review of an Issue That Still Deserves Debate. Nutrients. 2023 Apr 16;15(8):1921. doi: 10.3390/nu15081921. 

Abstract. A strong controversy persists regarding the effect of red wine (RW) consumption and health. Guidelines for the prevention of cardiovascular diseases (CVD) and cancers discourage alcohol consumption in any form, but several studies have demonstrated that low RW intake may have positive effects on CVD risk. This review evaluated randomised controlled trials (RCTs), examining the recent literature on the correlations between acute and chronic RW consumption and health. All RCTs published in English on PubMed from 1 January 2000 to 28 February 2023 were evaluated. Ninety-one RCTs were included in this review, seven of which had a duration of more than six months. We assessed the effect of RW on: (1) antioxidant status, (2) cardiovascular function, (3) coagulation pathway and platelet function, (4) endothelial function and arterial stiffness, (5) hypertension, (6) immune function and inflammation status, (7) lipid profile and homocysteine levels, (8) body composition, type 2 diabetes and glucose metabolism, and (9) gut microbiota and the gastrointestinal tract. RW consumption mostly results in improvements in antioxidant status, thrombosis and inflammation markers, lipid profile, and gut microbiota, with conflicting results on hypertension and cardiac function. Notably, beneficial effects were observed on oxidative stress, inflammation, and nephropathy markers, with a modest decrease in CVD risk in five out of seven studies that evaluated the effect of RW consumption. These studies were conducted mainly in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus, and had a duration between six months and two years. Additional long-term RCTs are needed to confirm these benefits, and assess the potential risks associated with RW consumption.