Apple cider (Malus domestica)
Apple cider is a fermented beverage made from apple juice, typically ranging ~4–7% ABV. Commercial styles include still or sparkling, filtered or cloudy, dry, semi-dry, and sweet, plus specialties such as ice cider and barrel-aged ciders. It is distinct from cider vinegar, which results from acetic oxidation of cider.

Commercial forms
Still or sparkling (forced carbonation or bottle/tank refermentation).
Dry, semi-dry, sweet (increasing residual sugar).
Single-varietal or blends; hopped, spiced, or fruit-infused styles.
From concentrate (reconstituted) or NFC (not from concentrate).

Caloric value (as sold, 100 ml)
About 35–55 kcal per 100 ml (typical ≈ 45 kcal/100 ml; lower for dry styles and higher for sweet styles, depending on ABV and residual sugars).

Average composition (100 ml, indicative)
Water ~90–93 ml.
Ethanol ~4–7% vol (≈ 3–5 g/100 ml).
Total carbohydrates ~0.5–6 g (mostly sugars; style-dependent).
Organic acids: malic predominates; typical pH ~3.2–3.8.
Polyphenols: proanthocyanidins and hydroxycinnamates (astringency, oxidative stability).
CO₂: variable (up to ~5–7 g/L in sparkling products).
Optional processing aids/additives: sulfites for antioxidant/antimicrobial control; clarifiers where permitted.

Production process (overview)
Selection of apples—often a blend of sweet, acidic, and tannic cultivars.
Milling and pressing with oxygen management.
Juice clarification/settling and inoculation with selected yeasts (Saccharomyces spp.) or controlled “wild” ferments.
Primary fermentation at cool to moderate temperatures; optional malolactic fermentation to soften acidity.
Maturation with rackings; stabilization (cold/filtration/pasteurization) and, if sparkling, carbonation or secondary fermentation.
Isobaric packaging for sparkling cider; tight DO/TPO control to limit oxidation.

Sensory and technological properties
Color spans straw to golden/amber.
Aroma: fruity esters (apple/pear), floral notes; spices or cellar tones in some styles; oak ageing adds vanilla/spice.
Taste: balance of residual sweetness, malic acidity, and tannin; CO₂ lifts freshness and aroma perception.
Technological notes: managing pH, yeast nutrition, and dissolved oxygen is critical to prevent reduction (H₂S), excessive volatile acidity, and oxidative faults.

Styles and classifications (brief)
Dry (< ~5 g/L sugars), intermediate/semi-dry, sweet (> ~20 g/L).
Still versus sparkling (package pressure; re-fermented or carbonated).
Farmhouse/wild with indigenous microflora; keeved traditional ciders; ice cider from cryo-concentrated musts.

Culinary uses
Pairings with bloomy- or washed-rind cheeses, white meats and pork, spiced dishes, and raw seafood (dry, acidic styles).
Cooking: reductions and glazes, deglazing, light poaching of meats/vegetables; spoon desserts and gels.
Mixology: base for low-ABV spritzes, punches, and long drinks.

Nutrition and health
Cider provides calories from alcohol and sugars; dry styles are less caloric. Polyphenol levels vary widely by cultivar and process. As an alcoholic beverage, consumption should be responsible; vulnerable groups should avoid alcohol. Lipids are negligible; MUFA, PUFA, and SFA are quantitatively irrelevant here.

Allergens and safety
Sulfites: declare when above thresholds; sensitive individuals may react.
Gluten: generally absent unless cross-contact or added ingredients; verify flavorings and production lines.
Microbiological stability: risk of in-package refermentation if not stabilized; oxygen and hygiene control are decisive.

Quality and specification themes
Declared ABV; residual sugar (g/L); total acidity (as malic), volatile acidity; pH; CO₂ (g/L for sparkling).
Low dissolved oxygen/TPO; clarity or haze per style; clean aroma profile free of faults (acetic/solvent/reduced).
Pesticide residues on apples within limits; metals and microbes compliant with category norms.

Storage and shelf life
Store cool, away from light and thermal shocks; high temperatures accelerate oxidation and CO₂ loss. Bottle-conditioned products may show natural sediment. Once opened, refrigerate and consume within a few days.

Troubleshooting
“Struck-match”/reductive notes (H₂S): targeted aeration or allowed fining agents (within limits); prevent with adequate yeast nutrients.
High volatile acidity: poor hygiene or excess oxygen—improve sanitation and TPO control.
In-bottle refermentation/gushing: inadequate stabilization/filtration—verify residual sugars and viable yeast.
Oxidation (baked-apple/browning): tighten oxygen management and packaging barrier.

Sustainability and supply chain
Valorize pomace for feed, pectin, or bioenergy. Orchard practices (biodiversity, water stewardship, integrated pest management) and recovery of fermentation CO₂ improve the environmental profile.

Conclusion
Apple cider spans refreshing dry to aromatic sweet styles, with broad pairing and culinary utility. Final quality reflects the interplay of raw fruit, fermentation management, oxygen control, and packaging suited to preserving freshness and aromatic brightness.

Mini-glossary of lipid acronyms (English)

ABV — Alcohol by volume: The percentage of ethanol (v/v) in a beverage; for example, 5% ABV means 5 mL of ethanol per 100 mL of product.
DO/TPO — Dissolved oxygen / Total package oxygen: DO is the oxygen dissolved in the liquid at the time of measurement, while TPO is the sum of dissolved oxygen in the liquid plus the oxygen present in the package headspace after sealing; both are critical drivers of oxidation, flavor stability, and shelf life. 

MUFA — MonoUnsaturated Fatty Acids: Generally favorable for heart and lipid profile (e.g., oleic acid).
PUFA — PolyUnsaturated Fatty Acids: Include omega-3 and omega-6; beneficial, but keep a balanced omega-6:omega-3 ratio.
SFA — Saturated Fatty Acids: To moderate; impact depends on overall diet and the replacement nutrient.
ALA/EPA/DHA (omega-3) — Alpha-linolenic acid / Eicosapentaenoic acid / Docosahexaenoic acid: Support heart and brain health, with stronger evidence for EPA/DHA.
TFA — Trans Fatty Acids: To avoid; associated with increased cardiovascular risk.
MCT — Medium-Chain Triglycerides: Rapidly absorbed; useful in specific contexts, but still count toward total calories.

References__________________________________________________________________________

Tsoupras A, Moran D, Pleskach H, Durkin M, Traas C, Zabetakis I. Beneficial Anti-Platelet and Anti-Inflammatory Properties of Irish Apple Juice and Cider Bioactives. Foods. 2021 Feb 12;10(2):412. doi: 10.3390/foods10020412. 

Abstract. Several bioactives from fruit juices and beverages like phenolics, nucleotides and polar lipids (PL) have exhibited anti-platelet cardio-protective properties. However, apple juice and cider lipid bioactives have not been evaluated so far. The aim of this study was to investigate the anti-platelet and anti-inflammatory effects and structure activity relationships of Irish apple juice and Real Irish cider lipid bioactives against the platelet-activating factor (PAF)- and adenosine diphosphate (ADP)-related thrombotic and inflammatory manifestations in human platelets. Total Lipids (TL) were extracted from low, moderate and high in tannins apple juices and from their derived-through-fermentation cider products, as well as from commercial apple juice and cider. These were separated into neutral lipids (NL) and PL, while all lipid extracts were further assessed for their ability to inhibit aggregation of human platelets induced by PAF and ADP. In all cases, PL exhibited the strongest anti-platelet bioactivities and were further separated by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis into PL subclasses/fractions that were also assessed for their antiplatelet potency. The PL from low in tannins apple juice exhibited the strongest antiplatelet effects against PAF and ADP, while PL from its fermented cider product were less active. Moreover, the phosphatidylcholines (PC) in apple juices and the phosphatidylethanolamines (PE) in apple ciders were the most bioactive HPLC-derived PL subclasses against PAF-induced platelet aggregation. Structural elucidation of the fatty acid composition by gas chromatography mass spectra (GCMS) analysis showed that PL from all samples are rich in beneficial monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) and omega 3 (n-3) polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), providing a possible explanation for their strong anti-platelet properties, while the favorable low levels of their omega-6/omega-3 (n-6/n-3) PUFA ratio, especially for the bioactive PC and PE subclasses, further support an anti-inflammatory cardio-protective potency for these apple products. In conclusion, Irish apple juice and Real Irish cider were found to possess bioactive PL compounds with strong antiplatelet and anti-inflammatory properties, while fermentation seems to be an important modulating factor on their lipid content, structures and bioactivities. However, further studies are needed to evaluate these effects.

Rosend J, Kaleda A, Kuldjärv R, Arju G, Nisamedtinov I. The Effect of Apple Juice Concentration on Cider Fermentation and Properties of the Final Product. Foods. 2020 Oct 2;9(10):1401. doi: 10.3390/foods9101401. 

Abstract. European legislation overall agrees that apple juice concentrate is allowed to be used to some extent in cider production. However, no comprehensive research is available to date on the differences in suitability for fermentation between fresh apple juice and that of reconstituted apple juice concentrate. This study aimed to apply freshly pressed juice and juice concentrate made from the same apple cultivar as a substrate for cider fermentation. Differences in yeast performance in terms of fermentation kinetics and consumption of nutrients have been assessed. Fermented ciders were compared according to volatile ester composition and off-flavor formation related to hydrogen sulfide. Based on the results, in the samples fermented with the concentrate, the yeasts consumed less fructose. The formation of long-chain fatty acid esters increased with the use of reconstituted juice concentrate while the differences in off-flavor formation could not be determined. Overall, the use of the concentrate can be considered efficient enough for the purpose of cider fermentation. However, some nutritional supplementation might be required to support the vitality of yeast.

Mu Y, Zeng C, Qiu R, Yang J, Zhang H, Song J, Yuan J, Sun J, Kang S. Optimization of the Fermentation Conditions of Huaniu Apple Cider and Quantification of Volatile Compounds Using HS-SPME-GC/MS. Metabolites. 2023 Sep 8;13(9):998. doi: 10.3390/metabo13090998. 

Abstract. The fermentation process and composition of volatile compounds play a crucial role in the production of Huaniu apple cider. This study aimed to optimize the fermentation conditions of Huaniu apple cider and quantify its volatile compounds using headspace solid-phase microextraction-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (HS-SPME-GC/MS). The optimal fermentation parameters were determined using response surface methodology (RSM). The optimal fermentation temperature was 25.48 °C, initial soluble solids were 18.90 degrees Brix, inoculation amount was 8.23%, and initial pH was 3.93. The fermentation rate was determined to be 3.0, and the predicted value from the verification test was 3.014. This finding demonstrated the excellent predictability of a RSM-optimized fermentation test for Huaniu apple cider, indicating the reliability of the process conditions. Moreover, the analysis of volatile compounds in the optimized Huaniu cider identified 72 different ingredients, including 41 esters, 16 alcohols, 6 acids, and 9 other substances. Notably, the esters exhibited high levels of ethyl acetate, ethyl octanoate, and ethyl capricate. Similarly, the alcohols demonstrated higher levels of 3-methyl-1-butanol, phenethylethanol, and 2-methyl-1-propanol, while the acids displayed increased concentrations of acetic acid, caproic acid, and caprylic acid. This study provides the essential technical parameters required for the preparation of Huaniu apple cider while also serving as a valuable reference for investigating its distinct flavor profile.

Lorenzini M, Simonato B, Zapparoli G. Yeast species diversity in apple juice for cider production evidenced by culture-based method. Folia Microbiol (Praha). 2018 Nov;63(6):677-684. doi: 10.1007/s12223-018-0609-0.

Abstract. Identification of yeasts isolated from apple juices of two cider houses (one located in a plain area and one in an alpine area) was carried out by culture-based method. Wallerstein Laboratory Nutrient Agar was used as medium for isolation and preliminary yeasts identification. A total of 20 species of yeasts belonging to ten different genera were identified using both BLAST algorithm for pairwise sequence comparison and phylogenetic approaches. A wide variety of non-Saccharomyces species was found. Interestingly, Candida railenensis, Candida cylindracea, Hanseniaspora meyeri, Hanseniaspora pseudoguilliermondii, and Metschnikowia sinensis were recovered for the first time in the yeast community of an apple environment. Phylogenetic analysis revealed a better resolution in identifying Metschnikowia and Moesziomyces isolates than comparative analysis using the GenBank or YeastIP gene databases. This study provides important data on yeast microbiota of apple juice and evidenced differences between two geographical cider production areas in terms of species composition.

Benvenutti L, Bortolini DG, Fischer TE, Zardo DM, Nogueira A, Zielinski AAF, Alberti A. Bioactive compounds recovered from apple pomace as ingredient in cider processing: monitoring of compounds during fermentation. J Food Sci Technol. 2022 Sep;59(9):3349-3358. doi: 10.1007/s13197-021-05318-8. Epub 2021 Nov 21. PMID: 35875229; PMCID: PMC9304537.

Bouillon P, Zakalik D, Brown M, Kumar SK, Peck G. A Bittersweet Symphony: Genetic Insights into Cider Apple Fruit Quality. G3 (Bethesda). 2025 Oct 19:jkaf241. doi: 10.1093/g3journal/jkaf241. Epub ahead of print. PMID: 41109687.

Kristof I, Ledesma SC, Apud GR, Vera NR, Aredes Fernández PA. Oenococcus oeni allows the increase of antihypertensive and antioxidant activities in apple cider. Heliyon. 2023 Jun 1;9(6):e16806. doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e16806.