Sage (Salvia officinalis, family Lamiaceae) is a perennial aromatic herb native to the Mediterranean region. Its leaves are oval, velvety, grey-green and strongly aromatic, with a balsamic, slightly camphoraceous character. Sage is widely used both as a culinary herb and as a medicinal plant in traditional herbal practice. It is a key ingredient in many European, especially Italian, dishes and in various herbal infusions and extracts. 

Common name: Sage (common sage)

Parent plant: Salvia officinalis L.

Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Order: Lamiales
Family: Lamiaceae
Genus: Salvia
Species: Salvia officinalis L.

Cultivation and growth conditions

Climate

Sage is a Mediterranean plant that prefers temperate, dry climates.

• Optimal temperatures: 18–25 °C.

• It tolerates summer heat well.

• It withstands light frosts (down to about –5/–7 °C), but severe frosts can damage shoots and buds.

• It dislikes stagnant humidity and overly shaded, damp environments.

Sun exposure

Sage requires full sun to:

• produce high levels of essential oils,

• maintain a compact, dense habit,

• reduce the risk of rot and fungal diseases.

In partial shade it can grow, but becomes less aromatic and more disease-prone.

Soil

Sage prefers soils that are:

• light, sandy or stony,

• well drained,

• poor to moderately fertile,

• with pH 6.0–7.5.

Heavy clay soils with poor drainage promote waterlogging and root rot.
It is a rustic species and tolerates calcareous soils well.

Irrigation

Water requirement is low.

• Water only when the soil is completely dry.

• Avoid overwatering, which is very harmful to the plant.

• Young plants need more frequent irrigation in the first months after planting.

Once well established, sage is highly drought-tolerant.

Temperature

• Germination: 15–20 °C

• Optimal growth: 18–25 °C

• Growth slows below 10 °C

• Sensitive to severe frosts and excessive winter humidity

Fertilization

Aromatic plants like sage do not need heavy fertilization:

• Nitrogen: should be limited, as excess leads to lush, weak growth and lower essential oil content.

• Phosphorus: supports root development and flowering.

• Potassium: improves plant robustness and essential oil production.

Moderate organic amendments improve soil structure without making it too rich.

Crop care

• Annual pruning after flowering to keep the plant compact and prevent excessive woody growth.

• Removal of spent flower spikes to stimulate new vegetative growth.

• Weed control, especially in the first year.

• Good air circulation around plants to prevent powdery mildew and rots.

• Sage is relatively tolerant to pests; occasional aphids or leafhoppers may appear but are rarely serious.

Harvest

• Young shoots and leaves are harvested in spring and summer.

• For maximum aroma, the best time is just before flowering, when essential oil content peaks.

• Sprigs are cut without stripping the plant too heavily, leaving enough foliage for regrowth.

Fresh leaves can be dried in shaded, well-ventilated places for later use.

Propagation

Sage can be propagated by:

• Cuttings (most effective method): taken in late spring or late summer.

• Seed: sown in spring; germination is slower and plants show greater variability.

• Division of clumps: in early spring or autumn.

Plants produced from cuttings maintain the exact characteristics of the mother plant.

Indicative nutritional values per 100 g (leaf, dried-equivalent)
(Fresh sage has much lower values per 100 g because of its high water content; drying concentrates all nutrients.)

• Energy: ≈ 300–315 kcal

• Water: ≈ 7–10 g

• Carbohydrates: ≈ 60 g

  • of which sugars: ≈ 2–3 g

• Protein: ≈ 10–11 g

• Total fat: ≈ 12–13 g

  • SFA (saturated fatty acids; should be moderated overall): ≈ 3 g

  • MUFA (monounsaturated fatty acids; generally favourable for lipid profile): ≈ 1–2 g

  • PUFA (polyunsaturated fatty acids; important for membranes and anti-inflammatory processes): ≈ 7–8 g

• Dietary fibre: ≈ 40 g

• Minerals: calcium, iron, magnesium, potassium, manganese

• Vitamins: A (as provitamin A carotenoids), C, K and small amounts of B-group vitamins

Because typical culinary use is only a few grams, the actual nutritional contribution per serving is modest.

Key constituents

• Essential oil (volatile fraction):

  • thujone, 1,8-cineole, camphor, borneol and related monoterpenes

• Phenolic acids: rosmarinic acid, caffeic acid and derivatives

• Diterpenes: carnosic acid, carnosol (strong antioxidants, shared with rosemary)

• Flavonoids: luteolin, apigenin, their glycosides

• Tannins

• Dietary fibre and carotenoids in the leaf matrix

Production process

Cultivation

• Grows best in Mediterranean-type climates, in well-drained, often calcareous soils and full sun.

• Rustic, drought-tolerant plant suited to both conventional and organic farming.

• Propagated by seed, cuttings or division of mature plants.

Harvest

• Leaves and flowering tops are harvested during the vegetative season, often several times per year.

• Optimal harvest is usually just before flowering, when essential-oil content is highest.

Post-harvest

• Sorting and cleaning to remove foreign matter and damaged leaves.

• Drying at low temperature and with good ventilation to preserve colour and aroma.

• Destemming and milling (for ground sage) or direct packaging of whole leaves.

Further processing

• Steam distillation of fresh or dried plant material to obtain essential oil.

• Production of hydroalcoholic extracts, tinctures and standardised dry extracts.

• Use in herbal teas, functional blends and food flavourings.

Physical properties

• Fresh leaves: soft, velvety, with silvery-green appearance.

• Dried leaves: brittle, grey-green, intensely aromatic.

• Low water activity in dried sage → very good microbiological stability.

• Essential oil: clear to pale yellow liquid with strong camphoraceous, herbal odour.

Sensory and technological properties

• Aroma: warm, herbal, balsamic, slightly camphoraceous.

• Taste: strong, aromatic, slightly bitter and astringent; easily dominant if overdosed.

• Good thermal stability: retains much of its aroma under roasting, baking and sautéing.

• Works particularly well with fatty or rich dishes, as its bitterness and aroma help to balance perceived fatness.

• Fresh leaves can be fried to produce crisp, aromatic garnishes; dried sage is suitable for sausages, fillings and compound butters.

Food applications

• Seasoning for meat dishes (especially pork, sausage, poultry, game) and rich sauces.

• Flavouring for butter, oils, gravies, stuffing, focaccia and savoury pastries.

• Ingredient in soups, stews and broths, especially autumn–winter recipes.

• Used in herbal teas and infusions (often combined with other herbs).

• Component in mixed herb blends, such as poultry seasoning and Mediterranean mixes.

Nutrition & health

• Source of phenolic antioxidants (rosmarinic acid, carnosic acid, carnosol) that contribute to oxidative-stress protection within a balanced diet.

• Traditionally used as:

  • digestive and carminative herb

  • mild antiseptic and soothing for mouth and throat (gargles and rinses)

  • tonic in herbal preparations

• Essential oil is pharmacologically active; concentrated products must be used with caution and never ingested undiluted.

• Culinary use in small quantities is generally considered safe for healthy adults.

(Traditional uses do not replace medical advice or properly authorised medicinal products.)

Portion note

• Typical culinary usage: 1–3 g of fresh leaves (or the equivalent in dried sage) per portion, depending on recipe and desired intensity.

• Small increases can lead to a marked increase in flavour, so sage is usually used sparingly.

Allergens and intolerances

• Sage is not included among the major EU allergens.

• Rare contact sensitivity may occur with essential oil or concentrated extracts in predisposed individuals.

• Very high intakes of preparations rich in thujone (e.g. certain essential-oil-based products) are not recommended, particularly for pregnant or breastfeeding women and people with epilepsy; this does not apply to normal food use.

Storage and shelf-life

Fresh sage

• About 3–5 days in the refrigerator, wrapped in a slightly damp cloth or stored in a breathable container.

Dried sage

• 12–24 months in closed containers, in a cool, dry, dark place.

• Aroma gradually diminishes over time; best used within the first year for optimal flavour.

Essential oil

• Typically 2–3 years when stored in tightly sealed dark glass, protected from light, heat and oxygen.

Safety and regulatory aspects

• As a culinary herb, sage must comply with limits for:

  • pesticide residues (MRL)

  • microbiological quality and foreign matter

• Processing facilities must operate under GMP and HACCP principles.

• Sage essential oil and extracts used in foods and food supplements are subject to specific safety assessments and maximum-use recommendations because of thujone content.

• In cosmetics and aromatherapy products, thujone-containing oils are also regulated and subject to usage restrictions.

Labelling
For food use:

• Name: “sage” / Salvia officinalis.

• Country of origin or place of provenance.

• Net weight, batch/lot number, best-before date.

• Storage instructions (e.g. “store in a cool, dry place, away from light”).

For herb blends and flavoured products:

• Sage listed in the ingredient list in descending order of weight at formulation.

Troubleshooting

• Weak aroma → old product, excessive drying temperature or poor storage (exposure to air, heat or light).

• Brown, dull leaves → oxidation and/or high drying temperatures; lower-quality flavour.

• Musty or mouldy odour → excessive moisture or poor storage; product must not be used.

• Overly bitter or medicinal taste in dishes → excessive dosing; sage is potent and should be used sparingly.

Sustainability and supply chain

• Sage is a low-input crop, generally requiring modest irrigation and fertilisation.

• Well adapted to organic farming and integrated pest-management systems.

• Often produced locally in Mediterranean and temperate regions, supporting short supply chains.

• High aromatic yield per hectare → relatively small quantities of plant material are needed for flavour, reducing overall resource use.

Main INCI functions (cosmetics)
Cosmetic ingredients from sage include:

• Salvia Officinalis Leaf Extract – used as an antioxidant, antiseptic/purifying and skin-conditioning agent.

• Salvia Officinalis Oil – aromatic essential oil with purifying, toning and deodorising functions, widely used in oral-care, deodorant and cleansing products (within safety limits).

• Salvia Officinalis Leaf Water (or distillate) – mild toning and refreshing water for skin and hair.

Use levels must follow cosmetic safety assessments and regulatory restrictions, especially regarding thujone content.

Conclusion
Sage (Salvia officinalis) is a highly valued culinary and medicinal herb, combining a powerful aromatic profile with a rich content of bioactive compounds. It is versatile in the kitchen—particularly with rich and savoury dishes—and has a long history in herbal preparations for digestive, antiseptic and toning uses. Its rustic agronomy and suitability for low-input cultivation make it a good candidate for sustainable production. Correct drying, storage and dosage are essential to preserve aroma, safety and functional value along the supply chain.

Mini-glossary

• SFA – Saturated fatty acids; dietary fats that should be moderated due to their association with increased cardiovascular risk when excessive.

• MUFA – Monounsaturated fatty acids; generally favourable for blood-lipid profile.

• PUFA – Polyunsaturated fatty acids; important for cell membranes and anti-inflammatory processes.

• MRL – Maximum Residue Level; legal limit for pesticide residues in foods.

• GMP – Good Manufacturing Practices; operational standards ensuring hygienic, controlled production.

• HACCP – Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points; preventive system for identifying and managing food-safety hazards.

Plant Characteristics

Salvia officinalis is a shrub that typically reaches a height of 30-60 cm. The plant forms dense clumps of oblong, thick leaves that emit a strong aroma when crushed. It blooms during the summer, producing small flowers in shades of blue, purple, pink, or white that attract numerous pollinators. These flowers are organized in inflorescences called verticillasters, typical of the Lamiaceae.

Chemical Composition and Structure

The leaves of Salvia officinalis are rich in essential oils, including cineole, borneol, thujone, and camphor, which give the plant its distinctive aroma and its antibacterial and antioxidant properties. Additionally, it contains flavonoids, phenolic acids, and tannins, which contribute to its health benefits, supporting activities such as anti-inflammation and antioxidant protection.

The whole plant, including leaves, is dark green, hairy and gives off a typical aroma.

Studies

Phytochemical analysis reveals a good number of substances useful for human health

• Terpenoids: monoterpenoids, diterpenoids, triterpenoids, sesquiterpenoids
• Phenolic compounds: tannins, coumarins, flavonoids (ellagic acid, quercetin, chlorogenic acid, epicatecin, rutin and luteolin-7-glucoside, epicatechin, epigallocatechin gallate
• Glycoside derivatives: saponins, flavonoid glycosides, cardiac glycosides

Sage extracts have hindered the early stages of colon carcinogenesis by showing chemo-preventive effects (4), preventive or therapeutic activity against angiogenesis-related disorders (5), anti-proliferative activity against tumour cells (6), mutagenic and antimutagenic potential (7), antinociceptive properties on chemical nociception behavioural patterns involving an opioid mechanism (8).

It contains vitamin K and rosmarinic acid (an acid also found in rosemary), which act as antioxidants to combat inflammation and oxidation (1) (2).

Sage leaves contain triterpenoids, such as ursolic acid and oleanoic acid and tannins (3).

It also has properties to improve memory function of brain .

Other interesting components found in sage

• camphor
• 1,8-cineole
• α-thujene
• α-pinene
• β-pinene
• myrcene

Many sage species, among which, used in the medical field:

• Salvia officinalis
• Salvia somalensis
• Dolomitic sage
• Sage polystachya
• Sage lavandulfolia
• Salvia chamaedryoides
• Sage apiana
• Salvia rhytidea
• Austrian Sage
• Salvia wiedemannii Boiss
• Salvia miltiorrhiza
• Salvia adenophora
• Salvia x jamensis

References____________________________________________________________________

(1) Kelm MA, Nair MG, Strasburg GM, DeWitt DL. Antioxidant and cyclooxygenase inhibitory phenolic compounds from Ocimum sanctum Linn. Phytomedicine 2000 Mar; 7 (1): 7-13. 2000. PMID: 12240.

Abstract. Anti-oxidant bioassay-directed extraction of the fresh leaves and stems of Ocimum sanctum and purification of the extract yielded the following compounds; cirsilineol [1], cirsimaritin [2], isothymusin [3], isothymonin [4], apigenin [5], rosmarinic acid [6], and appreciable quantities of eugenol. The structures of compounds 1-6 were established using spectroscopic methods. Compounds 1 and 5 were isolated previously from O. sanctum whereas compounds 2 and 3 are here identified for the first time from O. sanctum. Eugenol, a major component of the volatile oil, and compounds 1, 3, 4, and 6 demonstrated good antioxidant activity at 10-microM concentrations. Anti-inflammatory activity or cyclooxygenase inhibitory activity of these compounds were observed. Eugenol demonstrated 97% cyclooxygenase-1 inhibitory activity when assayed at 1000-microM concentrations. Compounds 1, 2, and 4-6 displayed 37, 50, 37, 65, and 58% cyclooxygenase-1 inhibitory activity, respectively, when assayed at 1000-microM concentrations. Eugenol and compounds 1, 2, 5, and 6 demonstrated cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitory activity at slightly higher levels when assayed at 1000-microM concentrations. The activities of compounds 1-6 were comparable to ibuprofen, naproxen, and aspirin at 10-, 10-, and 1000-microM concentrations, respectively. These results support traditional uses of O. sanctum and identify the compounds responsible.

(2) Malencic D, Gasic O, Popovic M, Boza P. Screening for antioxidant properties of Sage reflexa hornem. Phytother Res 2000 Nov; 14 (7): 546-8. 2000. PMID: 12230.

(3) European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. Salviae officinalis folium. 2nd ed. New York: Thieme; 2003. ESCOP Monographs; pp. 452-5.

(4) Pedro DF, Ramos AA, Lima CF, Baltazar F, Pereira-Wilson C. Colon Cancer Chemoprevention by Sage Tea Drinking: Decreased DNA Damage and Cell Proliferation. Phytother Res. 2016 Feb;30(2):298-305. doi: 10.1002/ptr.5531. 

(5) Keshavarz M, Mostafaie A, Mansouri K, Bidmeshkipour A, Motlagh HR, Parvaneh S. In vitro and ex vivo antiangiogenic activity of Salvia officinalis. Phytother Res. 2010 Oct;24(10):1526-31. doi: 10.1002/ptr.3168.

(6) Kontogianni VG, Tomic G, Nikolic I, Nerantzaki AA, Sayyad N, Stosic-Grujicic S, Stojanovic I, Gerothanassis IP, Tzakos AG. Phytochemical profile of Rosmarinus officinalis and Salvia officinalis extracts and correlation to their antioxidant and anti-proliferative activity. Food Chem. 2013 Jan 1;136(1):120-9. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2012.07.091.

(7) Vuković-Gacić B, Nikcević S, Berić-Bjedov T, Knezević-Vukcević J, Simić D. Antimutagenic effect of essential oil of sage (Salvia officinalis L.) and its monoterpenes against UV-induced mutations in Escherichia coli and Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Food Chem Toxicol. 2006 Oct;44(10):1730-8. doi: 10.1016/j.fct.2006.05.011. 

Abstract. Mutagenic and antimutagenic potential of essential oil (EO) of cultivated sage (S. officinalis L.) and its monoterpenes: thujone, 1,8-cineole, camphor and limonene against UVC-induced mutations was studied with Salmonella/microsome, E. coli WP2, E. coli K12 [Simić, D., Vuković-Gacić, B., Knezević-Vukcević, J., 1998. Detection of natural bioantimutagens and their mechanisms of action with bacterial assay-system. Mutat. Res. 402, 51-57] and S. cerevisiae D7 reversion assays. The toxicity of EO differed, depending on the strain used. The most sensitive were permeable strains TA100, TA102, E. coli K12 IB112 and non-permeable WP2. Mutagenic potential of EO and monoterpenes was not detected, with or without S9. EO reduced the number of UV-induced revertants in a concentration-dependent manner, reaching 50-70% of inhibition at the maximum non-toxic concentrations: 3 microl/plate (TA102), 5 microl/plate (WP2), 7.5 microl/plate (IB112), 30 microl/plate (E. coli K12 SY252) and 60 microl/plate (D7). The metabolic activation had no effect on antimutagenic potential of EO. Similar toxicity of monoterpenes was observed in TA100, E. coli SY252 and D7, with the exception of limonene (less toxic to D7). Reduction of UV-induced revertants by non-toxic concentrations of monoterpenes, tested with SY252 and D7, reached 40-50% at 15-20 microl/plate of thujone, 10 microl/plate of cineole and 1-10 microg/plate of camphor. Limonene showed antimutagenic effect only in D7. Our data recommend sage monoterpenes for further chemoprevention studies.

(8) Rodrigues MR, Kanazawa LK, das Neves TL, da Silva CF, Horst H, Pizzolatti MG, Santos AR, Baggio CH, Werner MF. Antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory potential of extract and isolated compounds from the leaves of Salvia officinalis in mice. J Ethnopharmacol. 2012 Jan 31;139(2):519-26. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2011.11.042. 

Biofilms are complex communities of microorganisms, responsible for more than 60% of the chronic human infections and they represent one of the leading concerns in medicine. Pseudomonas aeruginosa is human pathogenic bacteria which causes numerous diseases and is known for its ability to produce biofilm. Ocimum basilicum L. (basil) and Salvia officinalis L. (sage) are widely used plants in traditional medicine for the treatment of different conditions. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the potential of basil and sage essential oils against P. aeruginosa biofilm producing strains. The efficacy of two essential oils on P. aeruginosa biofilm forming ability was determined using crystal violet method. Out of 15 strains isolated from different clinical biological samples, two were strong, 11 moderate and one weak biofilm producer. Good efficacy of sage essential oil towards strong and weak biofilm producers, but not of basil essential oil, was observed. In the case of moderate biofilm producers, 81.8% showed lower biofilm production after incubation with the sage oil, while 63.6% showed the reduction of biofilm production after basil essential oil treatment. The obtained results showed high potential of both oils for the treatment of persistent infections caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms (1).

Ultraviolet (UV) irradiation triggers skin photoaging processes, which disrupt the normal three-dimensional integrity of skin. UV-induced oxidative stress, both directly and indirectly, stimulates complex signaling pathways. UV radiation activates skin cell surface receptors on a molecular level and triggers severe changes in extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins, resulting in skin photoaging.Sclareol isolated from Salvia officinalis is widely used as a fragrance material. In this study, sclareol inhibited various photoaging phenomena in human fibroblasts and RHE model. In addition, sclareol-containing cream improved wrinkles in a clinical trial. Taken together, sclareol alleviates facial wrinkle formation via an antiphotoaging mechanism and may be an effective candidate ingredient (2).

Salvia officinalis (Lamiaceae) has been used in south of Brazil as a diary homemade, in food condiment and tea-beverage used for the treatment of several disorders. The objective of this study was to characterize chemical compounds in the hydroalcoholic (ExtHS) and aqueous (ExtAS) extract from Salvia officinalis (L.) by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and by high-resolution electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-QTOF MS/MS), evaluate in vitro ability to scavenge the free radical 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH•) and 2,2'-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS•+), catalase (CAT-like) and superoxide dismutase (SOD-like) activity, moreover cytotoxic by MTT assay, alterations on cell morphology by giemsa and apoptotic-induced mechanism for annexin V/propidium iodide. Chemical identification sage extracts revealed the presence of acids and phenolic compounds. In vitro antioxidant analysis for both extracts indicated promising activities. The cytotoxic assays using tumor (Hep-2, HeLa, A-549, HT-29 and A-375) and in non-tumor (HEK-293 and MRC-5), showed selectivity for tumor cell lines. Immunocytochemistry presenting a majority of tumor cells at late stages of the apoptotic process and necrosis. Given the results presented here, Brazilian Salvia officinalis (L.) used as condiment and tea, may protect the body against some disease, in particularly those where oxidative stress is involved, like neurodegenerative disorders, inflammation and cancer (3).

Salvia officinalis essential oil exhibited anticandidal activities against Candida albicans and had inhibitory effects on the adhesion of the cells to polymethyl methacrylate resin surface. With further testing and development, Salvia officinalis essential oil may be used as an antifungal denture cleanser to prevent candidal adhesion and thus reduce the risk of candida-associated denture stomatitis (4).

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(1) Potential of Ocimum basilicum L. and Salvia officinalis L. essential oils against biofilms of P. aeruginosa clinical isolates.

Stojanović-Radić Z, Pejcić M, Stojanović N, Sharifi-Rad J, Stanković N.

Cell Mol Biol (Noisy-le-grand). 2016 Aug

(2) Sclareol isolated from Salvia officinalis improves facial wrinkles via an antiphotoaging mechanism.

Park JE, Lee KE, Jung E, Kang S, Kim YJ.

J Cosmet Dermatol. 2016 Jul

(3) Pharmacological perspectives from Brazilian Salvia officinalis (Lamiaceae): antioxidant, and antitumor in mammalian cells.

Garcia CS, Menti C, Lambert AP, Barcellos T, Moura S, Calloni C, Branco CS, Salvador M, Roesch-Ely M, Henriques JA.

An Acad Bras Cienc. 2016 Mar.

(4) In vitro effects of Salvia officinalis L. essential oil on Candida albicans.

Sookto T et al. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed. (2013)