Enriched durum semolina (Triticum durum Desf.)

Description

• Coarsely milled endosperm of durum wheat with a granular texture and naturally yellow hue (carotenoids), used primarily for pasta, couscous, and gnocchi alla romana.

• “Enriched” indicates the addition of selected vitamins and minerals—commonly iron, thiamin (B1), riboflavin (B2), niacin (B3), and folic acid (B9)—to compensate for nutrients reduced during milling (specific additions depend on local regulations).

• Typical granulation (indicative): a high share in the 180–425 μm range with minimal fines for optimal extrusion performance.

Caloric value (per 100 g)

• ~340–370 kcal; carbohydrates 70–75 g, protein 12–14 g, fat 1–2 g, fiber 2–4 g, sodium ~0 g (before enrichment carriers).

• At culinary portions, energy is driven by starch; enrichment contributes negligible calories.

Key constituents

• Starch (amylose/amylopectin matrix), durum proteins (gliadins/glutenins) forming gluten with high strength/low extensibility desirable for firm pasta.

• Carotenoids (e.g., lutein) conferring yellow color; minerals and B vitamins per enrichment standard.

• Quality markers: protein % (Nx5.7), wet/dry gluten, gluten index, granulation profile, ash, color (L*a*b*, b* yellowness), falling number, damaged starch.

Production process

• Cleaning & tempering of durum wheat (optimize kernel moisture and hardness) → roller milling with intensive semolina purification (reduction of bran/specks) → sieving/classification to target particle-size distribution.

• Enrichment: metered addition of a premix (iron and B vitamins; others per jurisdiction) via micro-dosing to ensure uniformity.

• Packaging: bulk silos or multiwall bags with liners; lot coding and traceability under GMP/HACCP with CCP on metal detection, premix dosing, and foreign-matter control.

Sensory and technological properties

• Color: bright golden yellow; oxidation and excessive thermal exposure may dull color.

• Water absorption and granulation govern extrusion throughput, die swell, and al dente firmness.

• Low lipoxygenase activity in durum helps retain carotenoid color during processing.

• Rheology: strong gluten favors surface integrity and cooking tolerance in pasta.

Food uses

• Extruded pasta (all shapes), sheeted pasta (lasagne), couscous, semolina porridge/gnocchi, high-protein bakery blends (breads, pizza, taralli), batters/coatings for texture and color.

Nutrition and health

• Enrichment typically provides iron and B vitamins (notably folic acid), supporting dietary adequacy where mandated.

• Gluten-containing (unsuitable for celiac disease); wheat allergy possible.

• Glycemic response: al dente pasta made from coarse semolina tends to yield a lower GI than overcooked/finer flours; pairing with fiber/protein/fat further moderates postprandial glycemia.

Lipid profile

• Very low total fat; pattern (of intrinsic lipids): traces of PUFA (polyunsaturated fatty acids, mainly linoleic) ≥ MUFA (monounsaturated fatty acids, oleic) > SFA (saturated fatty acids).

• Health note: emphasizing MUFA/PUFA over SFA is generally favorable/neutral for blood lipids; the absolute impact here is small due to low fat content. TFA (industrial trans fatty acids) absent; MCT (medium-chain triglycerides) not characteristic.

Quality and specifications (typical topics)

• Moisture ≤14.0%, protein 12.0–14.0% (db, per market), ash ~0.55–0.90% (db), granulation (e.g., % on 425/300/212 μm sieves), speck count, color b* (minimum yellowness), damaged starch (low–moderate), gluten index within target.

• Microbiology: low aerobic counts; Salmonella absent/25 g; yeasts/molds within spec.

• Contaminants: pesticides/metals compliant; mycotoxins (e.g., DON) within limits.

• Premix uniformity and potency verified against label claim (e.g., iron, thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, folic acid).

Storage and shelf-life

• Store cool, dry, and dark (≤25 °C; RH <65%); protect from odors and pests.

• Typical shelf-life 6–12 months (shorter in warm/humid climates); rotate by FIFO. Bulk silos require aeration and sanitation programs.

Allergens and safety

• Contains wheat/gluten (major allergen in many jurisdictions).

• Manage cross-contact (soy, milk, egg in pasta plants, sesame in bakeries).

• Dust control for worker safety and to mitigate dust-explosion risk in mills.

INCI functions in cosmetics

• Not commonly used as a cosmetic raw material; related entries include Triticum Vulgare (Wheat) Flour, Hydrolyzed Wheat Protein, Triticum Vulgare (Wheat) Germ Oil (absorbent, skin conditioning, antioxidant). “Durum semolina” per se is not a standard INCI.

Troubleshooting

• Dull pasta color: excessive oxidation/enzymatic bleaching → reduce residence time/oxygen, use low-LOX lots, optimize drying.

• Soft or sticky cooked pasta: protein too low or fines too high → raise protein target, tighten granulation (more coarse fraction), optimize extrusion/drying.

• Black/brown specks: bran contamination → improve purification/sifting; check worn rolls/sieves.

• Premix segregation: poor mixing or long conveyance → improve micro-dosing and mixing order; use appropriate carriers.

• Rancid/off-odors: high moisture/heat or bran carryover → lower moisture, cool storage, stricter purification.

Sustainability and supply chain

• Source durum from regions practicing precision irrigation and IPM; select varieties with fusarium tolerance to reduce mycotoxin risk.

• Mill energy optimization (high-efficiency motors, heat recovery); by-products (bran, shorts) diverted to feed or further valorization.

• Wastewater and condensates treated to BOD/COD targets; full traceability under GMP/HACCP.

Conclusion
Enriched durum semolina combines processing functionality (strong gluten, controlled granulation) with enhanced micronutrient content for reliable performance in pasta and related foods. Tight control of granulation, protein/gluten metrics, color, and premix uniformity yields products that are safe, stable, and sensory-consistent.

Mini-glossary

• GI — Glycemic index: post-meal blood-glucose response; lowered by al dente cooking, coarser granulation, and pairing with fiber/protein/fat.

• DON — Deoxynivalenol: a wheat mycotoxin; must remain below legal limits.

• SFA — Saturated fatty acids: excess may raise LDL; present only in trace amounts in semolina.

• MUFA — Monounsaturated fatty acids (e.g., oleic): generally favorable/neutral for blood lipids; trace here.

• PUFA — Polyunsaturated fatty acids (e.g., linoleic): beneficial when balanced; trace here.

• TFA — Trans fatty acids (industrial): avoid; absent in non-hydrogenated cereal products.

• MCT — Medium-chain triglycerides: typical of coconut oil; not present in semolina.

• GMP/HACCP — Good Manufacturing Practice / Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points: hygiene and preventive-safety systems with defined CCP.

• CCP — Critical control point: processing step where a control prevents/reduces a hazard (e.g., metal detection, dosing).

• BOD/COD — Biochemical/Chemical oxygen demand: indicators of wastewater impact from milling processes.

• FIFO — First in, first out: inventory rotation rule to use older lots first.

Studies

Resistant starch is the fraction of starch that escapes digestion in the small intestine (1) and is considered a form of dietary fiber with beneficial health properties (2). Because foods high in resistant starch are digested more slowly, they have been shown to improve insulin response and increase satiety (3).

The advantages of resistant starch also extend to colon health where fermentation occurs in the large intestine (4).

Wheat is used to obtain flours that can be:

• integral type 2
• refined of type 0
• even more refined than type 00

The more refined the flours are, the more they lose their nutritional characteristics.

For example, type 0 is different from 00 because it is less refined in grinding.

Nutritional values:

Pretty caloric with about 337 kcalories per 100 grams.

Saturated fatty acids: 0.4g per 100 grams

It contains less protein than hard wheat that is used for the preparation of pasta.

Wheat studies

References_______________________________________________

(1) Ann J Slade, Cate McGuire, Dayna Loeffler, Jessica Mullenberg, Wayne Skinner, Gia Fazio, Aaron Holm, Kali M Brandt, Michael N Steine, John F Goodstal, Vic C Knauf Development of high amylose wheat through TILLING BMC Plant Biol. 2012; 12: 69. Published online 2012 May 14. doi: 10.1186/1471-2229-12-69

Abstract. Background: Wheat (Triticum spp.) is an important source of food worldwide and the focus of considerable efforts to identify new combinations of genetic diversity for crop improvement. In particular, wheat starch composition is a major target for changes that could benefit human health. Starches with increased levels of amylose are of interest because of the correlation between higher amylose content and elevated levels of resistant starch, which has been shown to have beneficial effects on health for combating obesity and diabetes. TILLING (Targeting Induced Local Lesions in Genomes) is a means to identify novel genetic variation without the need for direct selection of phenotypes. Results: Using TILLING to identify novel genetic variation in each of the A and B genomes in tetraploid durum wheat and the A, B and D genomes in hexaploid bread wheat, we have identified mutations in the form of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in starch branching enzyme IIa genes (SBEIIa). Combining these new alleles of SBEIIa through breeding resulted in the development of high amylose durum and bread wheat varieties containing 47-55% amylose and having elevated resistant starch levels compared to wild-type wheat. High amylose lines also had reduced expression of SBEIIa RNA, changes in starch granule morphology and altered starch granule protein profiles as evaluated by mass spectrometry. Conclusions: We report the use of TILLING to develop new traits in crops with complex genomes without the use of transgenic modifications. Combined mutations in SBEIIa in durum and bread wheat varieties resulted in lines with significantly increased amylose and resistant starch contents.

(2) Englyst HN, Macfarlane GT. Breakdown of resistant and readily digestible starch by human gut bacteria. J Sci Food Agric. 1986;37:699–706.

Abstract. Cooking and processing of starch‐containing foodstuffs results in a portion of the starch becoming resistant to hydrolytic enzymes secreted in the small intestine of man. In order to determine whether this resistant starch (RS) was degraded in the colon, samples of RS and readily digestible starch (RDS) for comparisons were incubated with (a) cell‐free supernatants from faecal suspensions and (b) washed faecal bacterial cell suspensions. The data obtained showed that, whereas pancreatic amylase and faecal supernatants hydrolysed RDS, with the production of oligosaccharides, RS totally resisted breakdown. In contrast, both RS and RDS were completely degraded by the washed bacterial cells with the generation of volatile fatty acids (VFA) and organic acids. Hydrolysis and fermentation of RDS was extremely rapid and, as a consequence, oligosaccharides and lactate initially accumulated in the culture medium. RS was broken down more slowly, howevér, and oligosaccharides and lactate never accumulated. The rate of polysaccharide hydrolysis had a significant effect on the quantities of VFA produced, in that 54% of carbohydrate was fermented to VFA in cultures incubated with RDS as sole carbon source as compared to only 30% in cultures incubated with RS. However no qualitative difference was observed in the VFA produced by fermentation of RDS or RS.

(3) Robertson MD, Currie JM, Morgan LM, Jewell DP, Frayn KN. Prior short-term consumption of resistant starch enhances postprandial insulin sensitivity in healthy subjects. Diabetologia. 2003;46:659–665.

Abstract. Aims/hypothesi. Diets rich in insoluble-fibre are linked to a reduced risk of both diabetes and cardiovascular disease; however, the mechanism of action remains unclear. The aim of this study was to assess whether acute changes in the insoluble-fibre (resistant starch) content of the diet would have effects on postprandial carbohydrate and lipid handling. Methods Ten healthy subjects consumed two identical, low-residue diets on separate occasions for 24 h (33% fat; <2 g dietary fibre). Of the diets one was supplemented with 60 g resistant starch (Novelose 260). On the following morning a fibre-free meal tolerance test (MTT) was carried out (59 g carbohydrate; 21 g fat; 2.1 kJ) and postprandial insulin sensitivity (SIORAL) assessed using a minimal model approach. Results Prior resistant starch consumption led to lower postprandial plasma glucose (p=0.037) and insulin (p=0.038) with a higher insulin sensitivity(44±7.5 vs 26±3.5×10−4 dl kg−1 min−1 per µUml−1; p=0.028) and C-peptide-to-insulin molar ratio (18.7±6.5 vs 9.7±0.69; p=0.017). There was no effect of resistant starch consumption on plasma triacylglycerol although non-esterified fatty acid and 3-hydroxybutyrate levels were suppressed 5 h after the meal tolerance test. Conclusion Prior acute consumption of a high-dose of resistant starch enhanced carbohydrate handling in the postprandial period the following day potentially due to the increased rate of colonic fermentation.

Robertson MD, Bickerton AS, Dennis AL, Vidal H, Frayn KN. Insulin-sensitizing effects of dietary resistant starch and effects on skeletal muscle and adipose tissue metabolism. Am J Clin Nutr. 2005;82:559–567

Abstract. Background: Resistant starch may modulate insulin sensitivity, although the precise mechanism of this action is unknown. Objective: We studied the effects of resistant starch on insulin sensitivity and tissue metabolism. Design: We used a 4-wk supplementation period with 30 g resistant starch/d, compared with placebo, in 10 healthy subjects and assessed the results by using arteriovenous difference methods. Results: When assessed by euglycemic-hyperinsulinemic clamp, insulin sensitivity was higher after resistant starch supplementation than after placebo treatment (9.7 and 8.5 x 10(-2) mg glucose x kg(-1) x min(-1) x (mU insulin/L)(-1), respectively; P = 0.03); insulin sensitivity during the meal tolerance test (MTT) was 33% higher (P = 0.05). Forearm muscle glucose clearance during the MTT was also higher after resistant starch supplementation (P = 0.03) despite lower insulin concentrations (P = 0.02); glucose clearance adjusted for insulin was 44% higher. Subcutaneous abdominal adipose tissue nonesterified fatty acid (NEFA; P = 0.02) and glycerol (P = 0.05) release were lower with resistant starch supplementation, although systemic NEFA concentrations were not significantly altered. Short-chain fatty acid concentrations (acetate and propionate) were higher during the MTT (P = 0.05 and 0.01, respectively), as was acetate uptake by adipose tissue (P = 0.03). Fasting plasma ghrelin concentrations were higher with resistant starch supplementation (2769 compared with 2062 pg/mL; P = 0.03), although postprandial suppression (40-44%) did not differ significantly. Measurements of gene expression in adipose tissue and muscle were uninformative, which suggests effects at a metabolic level. The resistant starch supplement was well tolerated. Conclusion: These results suggest that dietary supplementation with resistant starch has the potential to improve insulin sensitivity. Further studies in insulin-resistant persons are needed.

(4) Topping DL, Clifton PM. Short-chain fatty acids and human colonic function: roles of resistant starch and nonstarch polysaccharides. Physiol Rev. 2001;81:1031–1064.

Abstract. Resistant starch (RS) is starch and products of its small intestinal digestion that enter the large bowel. It occurs for various reasons including chemical structure, cooking of food, chemical modification, and food mastication. Human colonic bacteria ferment RS and nonstarch polysaccharides (NSP; major components of dietary fiber) to short-chain fatty acids (SCFA), mainly acetate, propionate, and butyrate. SCFA stimulate colonic blood flow and fluid and electrolyte uptake. Butyrate is a preferred substrate for colonocytes and appears to promote a normal phenotype in these cells. Fermentation of some RS types favors butyrate production. Measurement of colonic fermentation in humans is difficult, and indirect measures (e.g., fecal samples) or animal models have been used. Of the latter, rodents appear to be of limited value, and pigs or dogs are preferable. RS is less effective than NSP in stool bulking, but epidemiological data suggest that it is more protective against colorectal cancer, possibly via butyrate. RS is a prebiotic, but knowledge of its other interactions with the microflora is limited. The contribution of RS to fermentation and colonic physiology seems to be greater than that of NSP. However, the lack of a generally accepted analytical procedure that accommodates the major influences on RS means this is yet to be established.