Musa acuminata (Musaceae)

Musa acuminata is a species of wild edible banana, native to South and Southeast Asia, and recognized as one of the principal genetic progenitors of modern dessert bananas. Taxonomically, it belongs to the family Musaceae and is classified as an evergreen perennial herb, rather than a true tree, even though its general appearance resembles that of a small palm or tree. The so-called “trunk” is in fact a pseudostem, formed by tightly packed leaf sheaths arising from a corm that is partially or completely underground. The leaves, often very large in wild forms, can reach several metres in length and are arranged in a spiral at the top of the pseudostem, giving the plant the typical fan-like architecture of bananas.

The inflorescence emerges from the upper portion of the pseudostem and develops in a horizontal or slightly pendulous position. It consists of a floral axis covered by leathery bracts, under which groups of flowers are borne. Within the same inflorescence, female flowers occupy the basal region, while male flowers are produced towards the tip, with whitish to yellowish perianths typical of the genus. The female flowers develop into elongated berries, commonly called bananas. In wild Musa acuminata, these fruits contain numerous hard seeds, while in the parthenocarpic cultivars derived from this species the fruits are seedless and fully edible at maturity. Reproduction occurs by seeds in wild populations, but in modern cultivation the plant is propagated almost exclusively through suckers or in vitro micropropagation, resulting in genetically uniform clonal lines.

From an ecological perspective, Musa acuminata behaves as a pioneer species, capable of colonising disturbed sites, forest edges and clearings in warm, humid environments with well-drained soils. In many tropical ecosystems it plays the role of a key resource species, providing a quickly renewable supply of food for a wide range of frugivorous animals, including bats, birds, rodents and primates, and contributing to seed dispersal processes of other plant species. Its ability to regenerate after cutting or damage to the pseudostem, thanks to multiple dormant buds in the corm, allows it to maintain stable stands even in habitats subject to periodic disturbance.

The domestication of Musa acuminata represents a crucial chapter in agricultural history. This species is considered one of the earliest domesticated plants, with archaeobotanical evidence indicating cultivation several millennia BCE in regions such as New Guinea. Over time, human selection favoured individuals with parthenocarpy (fruit formation without fertilisation) and seed sterility, giving rise to lineages in which the fruits are rich in pulp and lack fully developed seeds. Subsequent hybridisation and combination of genomes from Musa acuminata and Musa balbisiana produced a broad array of diploid and triploid hybrids, many of which form the genetic basis of today’s main dessert bananas and numerous cooking bananas and plantains.

In terms of nutrition and health, bananas derived from Musa acuminata are an important source of readily available carbohydrates, with a significant proportion of starch and simple sugars that shifts progressively from starch-rich to sugar-rich as the fruit ripens. The pulp provides dietary fibre, potassium, manganese, vitamin B6 and vitamin C, along with various phenolic compounds and carotenoids that contribute to the overall antioxidant profile. Because of these characteristics, bananas are often considered useful in eating patterns that require a moderately rapid energy supply and good digestive tolerability, such as in children, athletes or people with mild gastrointestinal complaints, always within the framework of balanced diets and appropriate professional guidance.

Numerous studies have shown that different parts of the plant (fruit, peel, leaves, pseudostem, flowers) contain bioactive metabolites with potential antioxidant, antidiabetic, hypolipidaemic, antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties. Research interest is particularly focused on the possible use of banana-derived extracts to support glucose and lipid metabolism and to mitigate oxidative stress. However, much of this evidence comes from in vitro experiments or animal models, and direct translation into clinical practice requires further confirmation, especially regarding dosage, long-term safety and interactions with pharmacological therapies. It is therefore essential to distinguish between the consumption of bananas as a food, generally regarded as safe as part of a varied diet, and the use of concentrated extracts or preparations for therapeutic purposes, which must be evaluated within an appropriate regulatory and clinical framework.

From an agronomic standpoint, Musa acuminata and its hybrids currently form one of the world’s most important tropical crops, both economically and socially. Cultivars with a predominantly acuminata genome underpin most dessert banana production, whereas hybrids with Musa balbisiana contribute largely to plantain and cooking banana types. Intensive cultivation, however, raises serious challenges related to phytosanitary vulnerability, the low genetic diversity of key commercial lines and the environmental impacts associated with pest management, fertiliser use and large-scale monoculture systems. In this context, the conservation of the genetic diversity of wild Musa acuminata populations is of strategic importance for future breeding programmes, especially for improving resistance to pathogens and adapting to climate change.

Botanical classification (APG IV system)

Indicative nutritional values per 100 g (fresh banana from Musa acuminata cultivars)
Values refer to the edible portion of raw banana; they may vary with cultivar, ripeness and growing conditions.

In a typical serving (one medium banana of about 100–120 g), the caloric intake is moderate and comes almost entirely from carbohydrates. The main nutritional contributions are potassium, vitamin B6, some dietary fiber, and a small amount of vitamin C.

Lipid profile note

Fresh bananas from Musa acuminata cultivars have a very low fat content. Saturated fatty acids (SFA) are present only in small quantities; when SFA predominate over unsaturated fats in the overall diet, they are generally considered less favourable for cardiovascular health. Monounsaturated (MUFA) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) are present in small amounts in banana, but in general are regarded as more favourable when they replace part of SFA in the diet.

In practice, for bananas the absolute lipid impact is negligible, and their nutritional role is mainly related to carbohydrates, potassium, vitamin B6 and fiber.

Plant Characteristics:

• Growth Form: Musa acuminata is a perennial herbaceous plant that can reach heights of 2-8 meters. It has a pseudostem made up of tightly stacked leaf bases.

• Leaves: The plant has large, elongated leaves that can be up to 2.5 meters long and 60 cm wide. The leaves are smooth with a prominent central rib.

• Flowers: Musa acuminata produces clusters of flowers that emerge from the center of the plant. The flowers are typically yellow, pink, or purple and are enclosed by large bracts.

• Fruits: The fruit of Musa acuminata is elongated, with a smooth yellow peel when ripe. The pulp is soft and sweet. The plant produces several varieties of bananas, including both dessert and cooking bananas.

Chemical Composition and Structure:

• Carbohydrates: The fruit is rich in carbohydrates, primarily starches and sugars such as glucose, fructose, and sucrose.

• Vitamins: Provides significant amounts of vitamins, especially vitamin C, vitamin B6, and folates.

• Minerals: Musa acuminata bananas are a good source of potassium, magnesium, and manganese.

• Fiber: The fruit contains dietary fibers, including pectin and cellulose, beneficial for digestive health.

Cultivation:

• Soil: Musa acuminata thrives in well-drained, loamy soils rich in organic matter. It prefers a soil pH between 5.5 and 7.0.

• Climate: Requires a tropical or subtropical climate with warm temperatures (ideally between 26-30°C) and high humidity. The plant is sensitive to frost and needs protection from cold temperatures.

• Irrigation: Regular and consistent watering is necessary to meet the plant's high water demands. The soil should be kept moist but not soggy.

• Fertilization: Apply a balanced fertilizer or one high in potassium to support fruit growth and development. Bananas have high nutritional demands, particularly for potassium.

• Pruning: Remove dead or damaged leaves and wilted flowers to prevent diseases and improve air circulation. Pruning helps maintain the health and productivity of the plant.

Uses and Benefits:

• Culinary Uses: The bananas produced by Musa acuminata are eaten fresh, cooked, or processed into various products like banana bread, smoothies, and baby foods. They are a staple food in many global diets due to their flavor and versatility.

• Medicinal Uses: Traditionally, bananas have been used to alleviate digestive problems and provide relief due to their high potassium content, which supports cardiovascular health and helps maintain blood pressure.

• Cosmetic Uses: Plant extracts are used in skincare products for their moisturizing and nourishing properties. They are included in face masks, shampoos, and conditioners.

Applications:

• Food Industry: Musa acuminata bananas are widely used in the food industry for their natural sweetness and texture. They are a key ingredient in many processed foods and beverages.

• Pharmaceutical Industry: Plant extracts and compounds are studied for their potential health benefits, including effects on digestive and cardiovascular health.

• Cosmetic Industry: Banana-derived ingredients are used in skincare products for their moisturizing and anti-aging effects, contributing to creams, serums, and lotions.

Environmental and Safety Considerations:

• Environmental Impact: Cultivation of Musa acuminata can be sustainable when managed responsibly. However, large-scale production may contribute to deforestation, biodiversity loss, and soil degradation. Adopting sustainable agricultural practices is advisable to mitigate such impacts.

• Safety: The fruit and plant parts are generally safe for consumption. However, individuals with latex allergies should be cautious, as bananas may trigger allergic reactions in sensitive individuals. It is advisable to follow proper handling and hygiene practices to prevent contamination.

Studies:

Bananas are typically harvested in the mature green stage and shipped to wholesale markets, where they are then treated with ethylene to stimulate ripening; this treatment results in a rapid color change from green to yellow and the development of a 'fruity' taste if stored at 16-24°C (1). In another banana family (Musa AAA group), chlorophyll degradation occurs at 35°C (2).

Since bananas have a good potassium content, it is believed that continuous consumption of bananas can alleviate muscle cramps associated with physical exercise. However, this study considers it unlikely (6).

Another popular belief attributes to banana consumption improvements in blood sugar and cholesterol levels. Although confirmation with a larger group of volunteers is needed, this pilot study demonstrated that daily consumption of bananas (@ 250 g/day) did not yield significantly appreciable results (7).

Banana studi

References___________________________________________________________________________

(1) Seymour, G. B., Thompson, A. K., & John, P. (1987). Inhibition of degreening in the peel of bananas ripened at tropical temperatures: I. Effect of high temperature on changes in the pulp and peel during ripening. Annals of applied biology, 110(1), 145-151.

Abstract. Bananas (Musa AAA Group, Cavendish Subgroup) were ripened over a range of temperatures from 15 to 35°C. The rate of ripening in both pulp and peel was accelerated with an increase in storage temperature up to about 24°C. Above this temperature the pulp softened and sweetened without the development of a fully yellow peel due to a decrease in the rate of chlorophyll breakdown. Peel carotenoid content was higher at 35°C than at 20°C.

(2) Yang X, Pang X, Xu L, Fang R, Huang X, Guan P et al. Accumulation of soluble sugars in peel at high temperature leads to stay-green ripe banana fruit. J Exp Botany 2009; 60: 4051–4062

Abstract. Bananas (Musa acuminata, AAA group) fail to develop a yellow peel and stay green when ripening at temperatures >24 degrees C. The identification of the mechanisms leading to the development of stay-green ripe bananas has practical value and is helpful in revealing pathways involved in the regulation of chlorophyll (Chl) degradation. In the present study, the Chl degradation pathway was characterized and the progress of ripening and senescence was assessed in banana peel at 30 degrees C versus 20 degrees C, by monitoring relevant gene expression and ripening and senescence parameters. A marked reduction in the expression levels of the genes for Chl b reductase, SGR (Stay-green protein), and pheophorbide a oxygenase was detected for the fruit ripening at 30 degrees C, when compared with fruit at 20 degrees C, indicating that Chl degradation was repressed at 30 degrees C at various steps along the Chl catabolic pathway. The repressed Chl degradation was not due to delayed ripening and senescence, since the fruit at 30 degrees C displayed faster onset of various ripening and senescence symptoms, suggesting that the stay-green ripe bananas are of similar phenotype to type C stay-green mutants. Faster accumulation of high levels of fructose and glucose in the peel at 30 degrees C prompted investigation of the roles of soluble sugars in Chl degradation. In vitro incubation of detached pieces of banana peel showed that the pieces of peel stayed green when incubated with 150 mM glucose or fructose, but turned completely yellow in the absence of sugars or with 150 mM mannitol, at either 20 degrees C or 30 degrees C. The results suggest that accumulation of sugars in the peel induced by a temperature of 30 degrees C may be a major factor regulating Chl degradation independently of fruit senescence.

(3) Amah D, Alamu E, Adesokan M, van Biljon A, Maziya-Dixon B, Swennen R, Labuschagne M. Variability of carotenoids in a Musa germplasm collection and implications for provitamin A biofortification. Food Chem X. 2019 Apr 8;2:100024. doi: 10.1016/j.fochx.2019.100024.

Abstract. Bananas are important staples in tropical and sub-tropical regions and their potential as a source of provitamin A has recently attracted attention for biofortification. A collection of 189 banana genotypes (AAB-plantains, M. acuminata cultivars and bred hybrids) was screened to determine variability in fruit pulp provitamin A carotenoid (pVAC) content using high performance liquid chromatography. Total carotenoid content in tested genotypes varied from 1.45 µg/g for hybrid 25447-S7 R2P8 to 36.21 µg/g for M. acuminata cultivar ITC.0601 Hung Tu with a mean of 8.00 µg/g fresh weight. Predominant carotenoids identified were α-carotene (38.67%), trans-β-carotene (22.08%), lutein (22.08%), 13-cis-β-carotene (14.45%) and 9-cis-β-carotene (2.92%), indicating that about 78% of the carotenoids in bananas are pVAC. High pVAC genotypes were identified for integration into biofortification strategies to combat vitamin A deficiency in developing countries.

(4) Molina-Salinas GM, Uc-Cachón AH, Peña-Rodríguez LM, Dzul-Beh AJ, Escobedo Gracía-Medrano RM. Bactericidal Effect of the Leaf Extract from Musa spp. (AAB Group, Silk Subgroup), cv. "Manzano" Against Multidrug-Resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis. J Med Food. 2019 Nov;22(11):1183-1185. doi: 10.1089/jmf.2019.0075. Epub 2019 Jul 10. PMID: 31268391; PMCID: PMC6862945.

Abstract. Air-dried leaves of a Musa spp. AAB, cv. "Manzano" plant, known as Ja'as in the Maya culture, were sequentially extracted with hexane, ethyl acetate, and methanol; the resulting extracts were investigated for their antimycobacterial activity against susceptible and drug-resistant strains of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) using the Microplate Alamar Blue Assay. Both the n-hexane extract (HE) and ethyl acetate extract (EE) showed potent activity against both strains of MTB, with the EE exhibiting the strongest activity and a Minimum Inhibitory Concentration of 12.5 and 6.25 μg/mL against susceptible and drug-resistant strains, respectively. Both extracts also demonstrated a mycobactericidal effect and a very good selectivity index when tested for cytotoxic activity on Vero monkey kidney cells, using the Sulforhodamine B assay. Our results demonstrate the efficiency and selectivity of Musa spp. AAB, cv. "Manzano" against MTB strains and support its traditional use as remedy against tuberculosis in Maya traditional medicine.

(5) Falcomer AL, Riquette RFR, de Lima BR, Ginani VC, Zandonadi RP. Health Benefits of Green Banana Consumption: A Systematic Review. Nutrients. 2019 May 29;11(6):1222. doi: 10.3390/nu11061222. PMID: 31146437; 

Abstract. Despite the growing demand for green banana (GB) products, there is no review study regarding their potential health benefits. We aimed to compare the health benefits among different GB products by a systematic review. We researched six electronic databases (PubMed, EMBASE, Scopus, Science Direct, Web of Science, and Google Scholar) from inception to March 2019. We found 1009 articles in these databases. After duplicate removal, we screened 732 articles' titles and abstracts, and selected 18 potentially relevant studies for full-text reading. We added five records from the reference list of the fully-read articles and seven suggested by the expert. Twelve articles were excluded. In the end, 18 studies were considered for this systematic review. Ten studies were conducted with green banana flour and eight with the green banana pulp/biomass. Most of the GB health benefits studied were related to the gastrointestinal symptoms/diseases, followed by the glycemic/insulin metabolism, weight control, and renal and liver complications associated to diabetes. Only one study did not confirm the health benefit proposed. It is necessary to standardize the GB dose/effect to different age groups and different health effects considering the GB variety and ripeness level. Further studies are necessary to present better detailing of GB product and their health effects considering all the raw-material characteristics.

(6) Miller KC. Plasma potassium concentration and content changes after banana ingestion in exercised men. J Athl Train. 2012 Nov-Dec;47(6):648-54. doi: 10.4085/1062-6050-47.6.05. 

Abstract. Context: Individuals prone to exercise-associated muscle cramps (EAMCs) are instructed to eat bananas because of their high potassium (K(+)) concentration and carbohydrate content and the perception that K(+) imbalances and fatigue contribute to the genesis of EAMCs. No data exist about the effect of bananas on plasma K(+) concentration ([K(+)](p)) or plasma glucose concentration ([glucose](p)) after exercise in the heat. Objective: To determine whether ingesting 0, 1, or 2 servings of bananas after 60 minutes of moderate to vigorous exercise in the heat alters [K(+)](p) or [glucose](p) and whether changes in [K(+)](p) result from hypotonic fluid effluxes or K(+) ion changes....Conclusions: The effect of banana ingestion on EAMCs is unknown; however, these data suggested bananas are unlikely to relieve EAMCs by increasing extracellular [K(+)] or [glucose](p). The increases in [K(+)](p) were marginal and within normal clinical values. The changes in [K(+)](p), plasma K(+) content, and [glucose](p) do not occur quickly enough to treat acute EAMCs, especially if they develop near the end of competition.

(7) Cressey R, Kumsaiyai W, Mangklabruks A. Daily consumption of banana marginally improves blood glucose and lipid profile in hypercholesterolemic subjects and increases serum adiponectin in type 2 diabetic patients. Indian J Exp Biol. 2014 Dec;52(12):1173-81. PMID: 25651610..

Abstract. In this study, we explored the effects of consumption of banana in thirty hypercholesterolemic and fifteen type 2 diabetic subjects. They were given a daily dose of 250 or 500 grams of banana for breakfast for 12 weeks. Fasting serum lipid, glucose and insulin levels were measured initially as well as every 4 weeks. Daily consumption of banana significantly lowered fasting blood glucose (from 99 ± 7.7 to 92 ± 6.9 and 102 ± 7.3 to 92 ± 5.7 mg x dL(-1) (p < 0.05) after consuming banana 250 or 500 g/day for 4 wk, respectively) and LDL-cholesterol/HDL-cholesterol ratio (from 2.7 ± 0.98 to 2.4 ± 0.85 and 2.8 ± 0.95 to 2.5 ± 0.79, p < 0.005) in hypercholesterolemic volunteers. Analysis of blood glycemic response after eating banana showed significantly lower 2 h-postprandial glucose level compared to baseline in hypercholesterolemic volunteers given a dose of 250 g/day. The changes of blood glucose and lipid profile in diabetic patients were not statistically significant, but for plasma levels of adiponectin, there were significantly increased (from 37.5 ± 9.36 to 48.8 ± 7.38 ngnml1, p < 0.05) compared to baseline. Although it remains to be confirmed with larger group of volunteers, this pilot study has demonstrated that daily consumption of banana (@ 250 g/day) is harmless both in diabetic and hypercholesterolemic volunteers and marginally beneficial to the later.