Teff (Eragrostis tef)

Description

Teff is an ancient cereal grass (Eragrostis tef) native to the Ethiopian and Eritrean highlands, where it has been cultivated for thousands of years and still represents a major staple food. The plant belongs to the Poaceae family and produces some of the smallest cereal grains in the world, typically around 1 mm in diameter, with colours ranging from ivory to reddish-brown. Because the kernels are so tiny, the whole grain is essentially always consumed in its intact form, meaning that the bran and germ cannot practically be removed: this naturally “wholegrain” character contributes to its high fibre and mineral content compared with many refined cereals. Teff has a mild, slightly sweet and nutty flavour and is naturally gluten-free, making it attractive for people with coeliac disease or non-coeliac gluten sensitivity. Traditionally it is used to prepare injera, the fermented spongy flatbread that is central to Ethiopian cuisine, but the grain and its flour are increasingly used worldwide in porridges, baked goods and modern gluten-free formulations.

Botanical classification

• Common name: teff

• Botanical name: Eragrostis tef

• Family: Poaceae

• Origin: Ethiopia and Eritrea, where it has been a traditional cereal for millennia

• General features: short-cycle annual grass with thin culms and delicate panicles; the seeds are extremely small and contain complex carbohydrates, fibre, and minerals

Cultivation and growing conditions

Climate

• Prefers warm temperate to subtropical climates.

• Tolerates moderate drought thanks to its fine but extensive root system.

• Does not tolerate frost: it is essentially a summer crop.

Exposure

• Requires full sun to ensure good tillering and uniform ripening.

• Prolonged shading significantly reduces yield.

Soil

• Adapts to many soil types, including poor or compact soils.

• Prefers well-drained, friable soils.

• Optimal pH: 5.5–7.5.

• Known for its ability to grow in marginal soils where other cereals fail.

Irrigation

• Moderate water requirement.

• Needs adequate soil moisture in the early stages (germination and tillering).

• Later it tolerates short water stress periods thanks to its rapid growth.

• Waterlogging should be avoided, as it damages roots and increases disease risk.

Temperature

• Germination: 15–20 °C.

• Optimal growth: 20–27 °C.

• Temperatures below 10 °C strongly slow development.

• Sensitive even to light frosts.

Fertilization

• Requires moderate fertilization.

• Nitrogen supports tillering, but excess nitrogen can increase lodging.

• Phosphorus is useful for root development and uniform panicle formation.

• Potassium is important for tolerance to water stress.

• Benefits from light organic fertilization.

Crop care

• Early weed control is essential, as young teff plants are very fine and weak.

• Crop rotation is recommended to limit fungal diseases such as Fusarium or Helminthosporium.

• Avoid over-irrigation or compacted soils, which impair growth.

• Sensitive to lodging if over-fertilized with nitrogen.

Harvest

• Ripening is rapid and relatively uniform.

• Harvest when panicles are dry and seeds show a uniform colour.

• Very prone to seed loss because of the extremely small seed size.

• Mechanical harvesting requires precise settings to minimize losses.

Propagation

• Propagated exclusively by seed.

• Direct field sowing in spring–summer, depending on temperature conditions.

• Very fine seed: sowing requires uniform distribution, often mixing seed with sand or fine soil to improve spreading.

Indicative nutritional values per 100 g (raw teff grain)

(Approximate composition; values vary with variety and origin.)

• Energy: ~360–370 kcal

• Water: ~8–10 g

• Protein: ~12–13 g 

• Total carbohydrates: ~70–73 g

  • Starch: major fraction of carbohydrates

  • Dietary fibre: ~7–9 g (higher than many common cereals) 

  • Sugars: ~1–2 g

• Total fat: ~2–2.5 g

  • First occurrence of lipid acronyms: SFA (saturated fatty acids, to be limited when overall dietary intake is high), MUFA (monounsaturated fatty acids, generally associated with favourable cardiometabolic profiles), PUFA (polyunsaturated fatty acids, relevant for inflammatory balance and cardiovascular health). Subsequent mentions will use these acronyms without bold.

  • SFA: ~0.4–0.5 g

  • MUFA: ~0.5–0.6 g

  • PUFA: ~1.0–1.1 g 

• Minerals (typical ranges) 

  • Calcium: ~150–180 mg

  • Iron: ~5–8 mg

  • Magnesium: ~180–190 mg

  • Phosphorus: ~400–430 mg

  • Potassium: ~400–430 mg

  • Zinc: ~3–4 mg

• Vitamins

  • B-group vitamins (thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, vitamin B6) in modest to moderate amounts

Key constituents

• Complex carbohydrates

  • Starch as the main energy source

  • Resistant starch fractions contributing to slower digestion and prebiotic effects

• Dietary fibre

  • Insoluble fibre supporting intestinal transit and stool bulk

  • Soluble and fermentable fibre fractions contributing to beneficial gut microbiota

• Proteins

  • Total protein around 12–13% with a relatively good amino-acid profile

  • Notably higher lysine content than many other cereals, which improves protein quality 

• Lipids

  • Low total fat, with a mixture of sfa, mufa and pufa, quantitatively modest at typical serving sizes

• Minerals and trace elements

  • Iron, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, zinc, copper and potassium in higher concentrations than many common cereals, though actual values can vary with soil and post-harvest handling 

• Bioactive compounds

  • Phenolic compounds and antioxidant constituents, especially in darker-coloured teff varieties

Production process

• Cultivation

  • Teff is a warm-season annual grass adapted to a wide range of environmental conditions from near sea level up to over 2,000–3,000 m, with good tolerance to drought and marginal soils when well managed. 

• Harvesting and threshing

  • Plants are harvested when the panicles turn yellow and seeds are mature; because the grains are tiny and easily shed, harvest timing and handling must be carefully controlled.

  • Traditional systems often use manual cutting and animal trampling for threshing, while modern systems may employ specialised harvesters.

• Cleaning and grading

  • Sieving, aspiration and gravity separation are used to remove chaff, stones, dust and foreign material.

• Milling

  • The small grain size makes practical separation of bran and endosperm extremely difficult; thus teff flour is essentially always wholegrain.

  • Grain is milled into fine flour using stone mills or modern roller mills designed to handle very small particles.

• Packaging

  • Whole grain and flour are packed in moisture-protective bags or containers, with attention to preventing insect infestation and oxidation, especially for flours.

Physical properties

• Grain appearance: very small oval to round grains (~1 mm) with colours ranging from cream/ivory to red and dark brown.

• Flour: fine, often slightly gritty wholegrain flour with cream to brown colour depending on variety.

• Hydration behaviour: high water-absorption capacity; grains swell and soften significantly upon cooking.

• Bulk density: relatively high due to small grain size and compact packing.

• Shelf stability: whole grains have better oxidative stability than many other whole cereals because the germ is proportionally small and protected, but flours are still prone to rancidity if stored improperly.

Sensory and technological properties

• Flavour: mild, slightly sweet with nutty and toasted cereal notes; darker varieties are more pronounced in flavour.

• Aroma: gentle cereal aroma, more intense after roasting or baking.

• Texture (cooked grain): soft yet slightly chewy, roughly comparable to a very fine couscous or a soft polenta when cooked with excess water.

• Behaviour as flour

  • Contributes warm colour and aromatic flavour to baked goods.

  • Absence of gluten means very low elasticity: doughs tend to be fragile and crumbly if teff flour is used alone.

  • High water-binding capacity, useful for moist and tender textures in breads, cakes and muffins.

  • Acts as a natural thickener in soups and stews due to starch and fibre.

Food applications

• Traditional uses

  • Core ingredient of injera, the fermented, spongy sourdough flatbread that accompanies most Ethiopian and Eritrean meals. 

  • Porridges and gruels used for breakfast, children’s foods and convalescent diets.

• Modern culinary uses

  • Cooked grain in salads, warm bowls and side dishes (similar to quinoa, millet or couscous).

  • Thickening agent in soups and stews.

  • Vegetarian and vegan patties, meat-replacement mixtures and grain-based burgers.

• Bakery and gluten-free applications

  • Wholegrain teff flour in breads, flatbreads, pancakes, waffles, muffins and cookies.

  • Partial substitution of wheat flour to enrich fibre and minerals, or as part of gluten-free flour blends with starches and hydrocolloids for improved structure.

• Specialty foods and beverages

  • Ingredient for gluten-free pastas and snack products.

  • Use in malting and brewing for gluten-free beers and fermented beverages. 

Nutrition and health

• Gluten-free profile

  • Teff is naturally gluten-free and is suitable for people with coeliac disease or non-coeliac gluten sensitivity, provided cross-contamination is controlled. 

• Glycaemic aspects

  • The combination of complex carbohydrates, fibre and resistant starch tends to support a moderate glycaemic response compared with many refined grains, though the exact glycaemic index depends on processing and preparation.

• Fibre and gut health

  • High dietary fibre content supports satiety, bowel regularity and gut microbiota; a portion of teff’s carbohydrates consists of fermentable fibres with potential prebiotic effects. White Star+1

• Mineral supply

  • Teff can be a valuable source of iron, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus and zinc; this is especially relevant where diets are otherwise low in these nutrients. Bioavailability of minerals may be influenced by phytate content and processing (e.g., fermentation in injera can enhance iron bioavailability). 

• Protein quality

  • Total protein content is moderate, but the relatively high lysine content improves amino-acid balance compared with many other cereals, which can be useful in plant-based diets when combined with other protein sources. 

• Lipids

  • Low total fat intake from typical portions, with modest contributions from sfa, mufa and pufa, means that teff’s impact on overall fat intake and cardiovascular risk is small compared with its carbohydrate and fibre contributions.

Portion note

• A typical cooked-grain serving for an adult is about 60–70 g raw teff (which yields roughly 180–200 g cooked), analogous to a standard serving of rice or other whole grains.

• In baked goods, 30–40 g teff flour per portion (often in blends) is common when targeting wholegrain or gluten-free formulations.

Allergens and intolerances

• Intrinsic allergenicity

  • Teff is not among the major regulated food allergens, and documented cases of teff-specific allergy are rare.

• Gluten and cross-contamination

  • The grain itself is gluten-free, but flours and processed products must be produced in facilities with appropriate controls to avoid contamination with wheat, barley or rye.

• Digestive tolerance

  • For most people, teff is well tolerated; in sensitive individuals, a sudden large increase in intake may cause bloating or discomfort due to its high fibre content, so gradual introduction is advisable.

Storage and shelf-life

• Whole grain

  • Store in a cool, dry place, protected from moisture and pests.

  • Typical shelf-life: about 12–24 months when properly stored.

• Flour

  • More sensitive to oxidation and rancidity due to increased surface area.

  • Ideal storage in airtight containers, away from heat and light; refrigeration or freezing prolongs shelf-life.

  • Typical shelf-life: around 6–12 months, depending on conditions.

• Signs of deterioration

  • Off or rancid odour, the presence of insects, visible mould, or caked, moist clumps.

Safety and regulatory aspects

• General safety

  • Teff is widely regarded as safe for human consumption and is increasingly recognised as a valuable gluten-free cereal in international markets.

• Allergen labelling

  • Teff itself is not a mandatory-declaration allergen in most jurisdictions, but gluten-free claims must comply with threshold limits (commonly <20 ppm gluten).

• Quality and contaminants

  • Standard cereal controls apply (mycotoxins, heavy metals, microbial safety).

  • Soil and traditional threshing practices can influence apparent mineral content; good agricultural and processing practices help ensure consistent quality. 

Labelling

• Ingredient name

  • “Teff grain”, “whole teff”, “teff flour” or similar; botanical name (Eragrostis tef) may be included for clarity.

• Gluten-free statements

  • “Gluten-free” or equivalent claims must meet legal criteria and require validated control of cross-contamination.

• Nutrition and health messaging

  • Possible indications (where legally permitted) include “source of fibre” or “high in fibre”, and “source of iron” or “source of magnesium” if compositional criteria are met.

• Origin and quality attributes

  • Country of origin, wholegrain status, organic certification and fair trade/smallholder sourcing may be highlighted depending on the product positioning.

Troubleshooting

• Problem: Baked goods crumble and lack structure

  • Likely causes: absence of gluten and insufficient binding.

  • Corrective actions: blend teff flour with other gluten-free flours and starches; add hydrocolloids (e.g., xanthan, guar gum) or psyllium husk; adjust hydration and mixing times.

• Problem: Doughs are too sticky or wet

  • Likely causes: high water absorption of teff flour not accounted for.

  • Corrective actions: reduce added water, allow resting time for full hydration, or increase the proportion of lower-absorption flours.

• Problem: Flavour too strong or dark colour undesired

  • Likely causes: high proportion of dark teff flour.

  • Corrective actions: switch to lighter teff varieties, reduce inclusion level, or blend with neutral flours.

Sustainability and supply chain

• Agronomic aspects

  • Teff shows good adaptability to marginal soils and semi-arid conditions and can be integrated into crop rotations, potentially contributing to resilience and diversification in farming systems. 

• Environmental footprint

  • Overall impact depends on local practices (fertiliser use, tillage, irrigation), but teff’s modest input requirements make it a candidate for lower-impact cereal production in suitable regions.

• Socio-economic dimension

  • In Ethiopia and Eritrea, teff is central to food security and rural livelihoods; global demand for teff-based products can create opportunities but also raises questions about local affordability and access. 

• International expansion

  • Cultivation is expanding beyond its traditional range (e.g., Europe, North America) as an alternative and niche crop, with potential to diversify cereal supply and support more resilient food systems. 

Main INCI functions (cosmetics)

(For cosmetic ingredients such as Eragrostis Tef Seed Extract, Eragrostis Tef Seed Powder.)

• Absorbent: helps absorb sebum and moisture in powders, masks and mattifying products.

• Thickener / viscosity modifier: contributes body to gels, emulsions and cleansers.

• Mild exfoliant: powdered seed can provide gentle physical exfoliation in scrubs and cleansing powders.

• Skin conditioning: supports smooth feel and can help form a soft, protective film on the skin.

• Natural structuring agent: used in “green” or minimalist formulations to support texture and stability.

Conclusion

Teff (Eragrostis tef) is a tiny but nutritionally significant cereal that combines wholegrain character, a valuable mix of fibre, minerals and moderately high-quality protein, and natural gluten-free status. Its mildly sweet, nutty flavour and versatile functional properties make it suitable for traditional foods such as injera as well as for modern porridges, side dishes, baked goods and gluten-free innovations. From a nutritional standpoint, teff offers a meaningful contribution of fibre and key minerals like iron, calcium and magnesium, particularly when used as part of a balanced diet that includes diverse plant and animal sources. Its adaptability to challenging growing conditions and its central role in East African food systems also give it an important sustainability and socio-economic dimension. In food and cosmetics alike, teff represents a technically interesting, consumer-friendly and increasingly global ingredient.

Studies

Nutritional value. Teff is an excellent source of protein, fiber, calcium, iron, and magnesium (1), as well as containing a number of other essential minerals and vitamins. Because of its extremely small size, teff is easy to digest, making it a good food choice for people with digestive sensitivities or intestinal diseases; it also cooks quickly compared to other whole grains, making it easier to prepare nutritious meals when time is short.

Its consumption is increasing both because of its lower price than other grains and because of its composition, which includes a wide range of nutrients: polyphenols, flavonoids, and various minerals including iron and zinc (2).

It can be used to make a variety of foods, including traditional Ethiopian injera, yeast-free bread, breakfast cereals, cakes, and as a thickener for soups and stews.

Gluten-free. Being naturally gluten-free, teff is an ideal choice for those on a gluten-free diet.

Drought-resistant. Teff is extremely drought-resistant, making it a sustainable crop that can grow in arid environments and contribute to food security.

Mini-glossary

• SFA – Saturated fatty acids; a category of fats that, when consumed in excess, can raise LDL (“bad”) cholesterol and increase cardiovascular risk.

• MUFA – Monounsaturated fatty acids; fats generally associated with more favourable blood lipid profiles when they replace saturated fats in the diet.

• PUFA – Polyunsaturated fatty acids; include omega-6 and omega-3 families, important for cell membranes, inflammatory regulation and cardiovascular health.

References_____________________________________________________________________

(1) Jaroszewska A, Jedrejek D, Sobolewska M, Kowalska I, Dzięcioł M. Mineral, Nutritional, and Phytochemical Composition and Baking Properties of Teff and Watermelon Seed Flours. Molecules. 2023 Apr 5;28(7):3255. doi: 10.3390/molecules28073255. 

Abstract. Demonstrated limitations in the mineral and nutritional composition of refined flours have led to calls for the possibility of enriching them with health-promoting supplements, such as high-value non-cereal seeds. Teff and watermelon seeds have been found suitable for the production of gluten-free flour, but so far, their potential to enrich conventional baking flours has not been comprehensively studied. Hence, the present study aimed at farinographic evaluation of dough based on refined wheat flour with additions of whole white teff (TF) and watermelon seed (WSF) and pomace (DWSF) flours (tested levels 10%, 20%, and 30%), as well as possibly extensive chemical characterization of the plant material tested, including LC-MS/MS, GC-MS, total phenolics, flavonoids, melatonin, and antioxidant potential. Most of the rheological traits were improved in the flour mixtures compared to the base white flour: development time and quality number (above 1.6-fold increase), softening and stability time (up to 1.3-fold change), and water absorption (up to 6%). Overall, the best results were achieved after the addition of watermelon seed pomace. The DWSF material was characterized by the highest levels of P, Mg, Na (7.5, 1.7, 0.4 g/kg, respectively), and Fe and Zn (124 and 27 mg/kg), while TF was the richest in Ca (0.9 g/kg) and Mn (43 mg/kg). Protein and fat levels were significantly higher in watermelon seeds compared to teff (about double and up to 10-fold, respectively). Phytochemical analyses highlighted the abundance of phenolics, especially flavones, in TF, WSF and DWSF flours (244, 93, and 721 mg/kg, respectively). However, the value of total polyphenols was low in all materials (<2 mg GAE/g), which also correlates with the low antioxidant potential of the samples. Watermelon seed pomace was characterized by significantly higher melatonin concentration (60 µg/kg) than teff (3.5 µg/kg). This study provides new information on the chemical composition and application opportunities of teff and watermelon seeds.

(2) Carboni J, Reed S, Kolba N, Eshel A, Koren O, Tako E. Alterations in the Intestinal Morphology, Gut Microbiota, and Trace Mineral Status Following Intra-Amniotic Administration (Gallus gallus) of Teff (Eragrostis tef) Seed Extracts. Nutrients. 2020 Oct 2;12(10):3020. doi: 10.3390/nu12103020. 

Abstract. The consumption of teff (Eragrostis tef), a gluten-free cereal grain, has increased due to its dense nutrient composition including complex carbohydrates, unsaturated fatty acids, trace minerals (especially Fe), and phytochemicals. This study utilized the clinically-validated Gallus gallus intra amniotic feeding model to assess the effects of intra-amniotic administration of teff extracts versus controls using seven groups: (1) non-injected; (2) 18Ω H2O injected; (3) 5% inulin; (4) teff extract 1%; (5) teff extract 2.5%; (6) teff extract 5%; and (7) teff extract 7.5%. The treatment groups were compared to each other and to controls. Our data demonstrated a significant improvement in hepatic iron (Fe) and zinc (Zn) concentration and LA:DGLA ratio without concomitant serum concentration changes, up-regulation of various Fe and Zn brush border membrane proteins, and beneficial morphological changes to duodenal villi and goblet cells. No significant taxonomic alterations were observed using 16S rRNA sequencing of the cecal microbiota. Several important bacterial metabolic pathways were differentially enriched in the teff group, likely due to teff's high relative fiber concentration, demonstrating an important bacterial-host interaction that contributed to improvements in the physiological status of Fe and Zn. Therefore, teff appeared to represent a promising staple food crop and should be further evaluated.