Basmati rice (Oryza sativa, basmati group)

Description

Basmati rice is a group of long-grain aromatic varieties of Oryza sativa originating from the Indian subcontinent, especially specific districts of India and Pakistan. It is characterised by very long, slender grains and a distinct natural aroma often described as slightly nutty or floral.

The kernels are narrow and elongated, with a high length-to-width ratio. During cooking they show a marked grain elongation with limited swelling in width. When cooked correctly, Basmati grains remain light, separate and fluffy, with little stickiness compared with many medium- or short-grain rices.

Basmati exists both as white (polished) rice and brown (wholegrain) basmati. Wholegrain basmati retains the bran and germ, resulting in higher fibre and micronutrient content, as well as a more pronounced flavour and firmer texture. White basmati is more commonly used in food service and household preparations that require a delicate, aromatic side dish with separate grains.

In international trade, the term “Basmati” is protected in some jurisdictions and linked to specific geographic areas and recognised cultivars. In many markets, however, the name is also used in a broader commercial sense for long-grain aromatic rice with Basmati-like features.

Botanical classification
Common name: Basmati rice (aromatic long-grain rice)
Clade: Angiosperms
Order: Poales
Family: Poaceae
Genus: Oryza
Species: Oryza sativa L.

Cultivation and growth conditions

Climate
Basmati rice is a cultivar typical of tropical and subtropical regions, historically grown in India, Pakistan and some Himalayan valleys. It requires hot summers, high air humidity and abundant water availability during the cropping cycle. It is sensitive to low temperatures at germination and flowering and performs best under warm, stable thermal conditions. Cold spells or abrupt temperature drops reduce tillering and yield.

Exposure
The crop needs full sun to ensure high photosynthetic efficiency and good panicle development. Under shaded conditions, growth is slower, heading is reduced and the number of filled grains per panicle decreases.

Soil
Basmati rice is usually grown on flat land suitable for flooding. It prefers silt–clay or clay–loam soils capable of retaining water, with good organic matter and medium to high fertility. Very sandy, highly permeable soils are not suitable, as they do not allow stable water levels to be maintained. The ideal pH ranges from slightly acidic to neutral or mildly alkaline.

Irrigation
The crop is generally grown under flooded conditions, maintaining a shallow water layer over the soil for much of the growing period. Careful control of water levels in the various stages (pre-emergence, tillering, stem elongation and ripening) is essential to limit weeds, reduce water stress and promote uniform growth. Sudden drops in water level or prolonged dry periods can significantly reduce yield and grain quality.

Temperature
Optimal temperature for germination is above 12–13 °C, while for vegetative growth and flowering the best range is about 22–32 °C. Cold episodes during anthesis reduce fertilization and grain set, whereas excessive heat combined with dry winds and intense radiation can cause grain scorching, reduced aroma and quality loss.

Fertilization
Basmati rice requires balanced fertilization with nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K):

• Nitrogen should be split (before flooding and in topdressings) to obtain regular tillering without excessive lodging.

• Phosphorus supports early crop establishment and root system development.

• Potassium improves lodging resistance and contributes to overall grain quality.

Excess nitrogen can lead to excessive vegetative growth at the expense of grain production, increase fungal diseases and may even reduce the characteristic aromatic intensity of the cultivar.

Crop care
Main management operations include:

• weed control through crop rotation, possible false sowing and mechanical or selective chemical interventions;

• optimization of land levelling to ensure uniform flooding;

• careful management of water levels to limit unwanted aquatic weeds and reduce stress;

• monitoring for diseases (e.g. blast) and pests, adopting integrated pest management where possible;

• adjustment of sowing density to reduce internal competition and the risk of lodging.

Good air circulation within the canopy helps limit diseases and maintain panicle structure.

Harvesting
Harvest takes place when grain ripening is uniform and grain moisture is suitable for combining. Excessive delays can increase lodging, shattering and quality losses (breakage, defects, reduced aromatic expression). After harvest, grain is dried to a moisture content compatible with safe storage and subsequent milling and processing steps.

Propagation
The Basmati cultivar is multiplied using certified seed, produced in varietal seed multiplication plots to guarantee genetic purity, typical aroma and grain uniformity. On farm, paddy sowing may be done broadcast or in rows, on dry soil or under water, adjusting the seed rate according to target plant density, soil fertility and the cultivation technique adopted.

Indicative nutritional values per 100 g

(raw white basmati rice – average ranges)

• Energy: ~ 345–365 kcal

• Water: ~ 10–13 g

• Total carbohydrates: ~ 75–78 g

  • starch is the dominant component

• Dietary fibre: ~ 0.5–2 g (higher values in brown basmati)

• Protein: ~ 7–9 g

• Total fat: ~ 0.5–1.2 g

  • first occurrence SFA (Saturated Fatty Acids): minor part of total fat; high overall SFA intake in the diet is associated with increased LDL cholesterol

  • MUFA (MonoUnsaturated Fatty Acids): present in small amounts and generally considered more favourable than SFA when replacing part of them

  • PUFA (PolyUnsaturated Fatty Acids): also present in small absolute amounts; contribute to the unsaturated lipid fraction

• Sodium: negligible in the raw grain (no added salt)

Values refer to uncooked white basmati and may vary slightly by brand, origin, crop year, polishing degree and analytical method. Cooked basmati, due to water absorption, has lower energy and nutrient density per 100 g (typically around 120 kcal with ~27 g carbohydrates and ~2.5–3 g protein).

Key constituents

• Complex carbohydrates

  • starch (amylose + amylopectin), main provider of energy

• Proteins

  • rice storage proteins (albumins, globulins, prolamins, glutelins) in moderate amounts

• Lipid fraction

  • low total fat content, with SFA, MUFA and PUFA all present but in small absolute quantities

• Dietary fibre

  • low in white basmati; significantly higher in brown basmati due to retained bran

• Micronutrients

  • B-group vitamins (e.g. thiamine, niacin, folate)

  • minerals such as phosphorus, magnesium, iron, zinc and selenium, especially in wholegrain forms

• Aromatic and minor components

  • specific volatile compounds responsible for the characteristic basmati aroma

  • phenolic compounds and phytosterols, mainly associated with bran and outer layers

Production process

1. Cultivation and harvest

   • cultivation in irrigated paddy fields, typically in alluvial soils with monsoonal or controlled irrigation regimes

   • sowing, fertilisation and pest management adapted to the specific basmati cultivars and local agro-climatic conditions

   • harvesting at full grain maturity using combine harvesters

2. Drying and cleaning

   • drying of paddy rice to safe storage moisture levels

   • removal of foreign materials and impurities (stones, straw, weed seeds)

3. Storage of paddy

   • storage in silos or warehouses with monitoring of temperature, humidity and insects

   • in some traditional supply chains, controlled aging of paddy for several months to enhance aroma and cooking performance

4. Dehusking and milling

   • dehusking to obtain brown basmati rice

   • for white basmati: further milling/whitening and optional polishing to remove most of the bran layers

   • grading and separation of broken kernels

5. Quality control and packaging

   • controls on grain size, purity, moisture, broken percentage and hygiene parameters

   • packaging in bags or consumer packs with appropriate labelling and storage instructions

Physical properties

• Grain type: long, slender grain (high length-to-width ratio)

• Endosperm: predominantly vitreous, with low chalkiness in quality lots

• Colour:

  • white to off-white for polished basmati

  • light brown to tan for brown basmati

• Cooking behaviour: significant grain elongation with minimal lateral swelling; cooked grains remain separate and non-sticky when prepared properly

Sensory and technological properties

• Aroma: distinct, aromatic profile, often described as floral or nutty; part of the reason for basmati’s culinary value

• Flavour: mild, slightly sweet cereal flavour that pairs well with spices, sauces and savoury components

• Texture after cooking:

  • light, fluffy mouthfeel

  • grains separate, not creamy or sticky

  • suitable for dishes where a defined, airy grain is required

• Technological aspects:

  • ideal for absorption and pilaf-type cooking methods

  • adapts well to seasoning with oils, spices and broths

  • less appropriate for preparations requiring high creaminess and starch release (e.g. Italian-style risotto)

Food uses

• Side dishes for meat, fish, legumes and vegetable dishes

• Curry accompaniments and dishes of Indian, Pakistani, Middle Eastern and other cuisines

• Pilaf, biryani and similar mixed rice dishes, where aromatic, separate grains are desired

• Rice salads and cold dishes, especially when a light texture is preferred

• As a base in one-dish meals combined with vegetables, pulses and other proteins

Brown basmati is particularly suitable in meals focusing on wholegrains and higher fibre intake.

Nutrition and health

Basmati is a starchy cereal providing mainly complex carbohydrates, modest protein and very low fat.

Key nutritional aspects:

• Energy and carbohydrates

  • main source of energy, especially when used as a staple or primary carbohydrate in a meal

• Glycaemic response

  • basmati rice typically has a low to moderate glycaemic index compared with many other white rices, which can be advantageous for blood glucose management when portion sizes are controlled

• Fibre and wholegrain versions

  • brown basmati contributes more dietary fibre, supporting intestinal function and longer satiety

  • white basmati has lower fibre but can still fit into balanced meals when combined with vegetables, pulses and other fibre sources

• Gluten-free nature

  • basmati, like all rice, is naturally gluten-free and can be used in diets for people with coeliac disease or gluten intolerance, provided cross-contamination is prevented

Overall, health effects depend strongly on portion size, frequency of consumption, cooking method and accompanying ingredients (fats, proteins, vegetables, sauces, etc.).

Portion note

Indicative dry basmati portions:

• as main carbohydrate in a meal: ~ 70–80 g per person

• as side dish: ~ 50–60 g per person

Because basmati absorbs water and increases substantially in volume, these dry amounts yield generous cooked portions and should be adapted to individual energy needs and context of the meal.

Allergens and intolerances

• basmati rice does not contain gluten, but may be contaminated if processed in facilities that also handle gluten-containing cereals

• specific rice allergy is relatively rare but possible in sensitised individuals

• in most consumers, basmati is well tolerated from a gastrointestinal perspective; brown basmati’s higher fibre can cause discomfort in some people if introduced suddenly in large amounts

Storage and shelf-life

Raw basmati rice

• store in a cool, dry place, away from direct light

• keep in original sealed packaging or transfer to airtight containers after opening

• avoid exposure to strong odours (spices, detergents) that the rice could absorb

• typical shelf-life for properly stored white basmati: up to 24 months or longer, depending on packaging and storage conditions; brown basmati generally has a shorter shelf-life due to higher lipid content in the bran and germ

Cooked basmati rice

• cool rapidly if not consumed immediately

• store in the refrigerator in closed containers

• consume preferably within 24 hours, observing good hygiene practices

Safety and regulatory

• basmati rice is a traditional cereal and falls under general food safety and cereal regulations

• subject to limits on contaminants such as pesticide residues, heavy metals and mycotoxins, as well as to microbiological criteria

• for rice labelled as “basmati” in certain jurisdictions, specific geographical and varietal requirements may apply

• for products carrying “gluten-free” claims, the entire supply chain and processing must comply with legal thresholds for gluten content

Labelling

For packaged basmati rice, the label should typically include:

• sales name (e.g. “Basmati rice”, “White basmati rice”, “Brown basmati rice”)

• net quantity

• minimum durability date (“best before”)

• storage instructions (e.g. “store in a cool, dry place”)

• name and address of the food business operator

• country of origin/production where required

• nutrition declaration per 100 g (and optionally per serving)

• any voluntary claims (e.g. “gluten-free”, “wholegrain”) only when the regulatory criteria are fulfilled

Troubleshooting

In cooking

• Grains too sticky or mushy

  • possible causes: too much water, excessive cooking time, lack of initial rinsing

  • possible actions:

    • rinse rice until water runs clear before cooking

    • use appropriate water-to-rice ratio for absorption or pilaf methods

    • respect recommended cooking times and avoid vigorous stirring

• Grains undercooked or hard in the centre

  • possible causes: insufficient water or cooking time

  • possible actions:

    • add a small amount of hot water and continue cooking briefly

    • adjust water ratio and cooking time for future preparations

In storage

• Presence of storage insects

  • associated with prolonged storage or inadequate container sealing

  • actions: discard infested product, clean storage area, use airtight containers and rotate stock

• Off-odours

  • may result from absorption of surrounding odours or oxidative changes in lipids (especially in brown basmati)

  • actions: store away from strongly scented products; respect best-before date and avoid high temperatures

Main INCI functions (cosmetics)

Cosmetic ingredients do not distinguish basmati as a variety; they are labelled at species level (Oryza sativa). Rice-derived cosmetic ingredients include:

• Oryza Sativa (Rice) Starch – used as absorbent, opacifying and texturising agent

• Oryza Sativa (Rice) Bran Oil – used as emollient and skin conditioning agent

• Oryza Sativa (Rice) Extract – may be used for skin conditioning and mild antioxidant contribution

Basmati as such is not differentiated in INCI labelling; its role is effectively the same as other rice sources.

Conclusion

Basmati rice is a long-grain aromatic rice characterised by slender kernels, marked grain elongation in cooking and a distinctive aroma. These features make it particularly suitable for dishes where light, separate and fragrant grains are required, such as pilafs, biryanis, curry accompaniments and many international recipes.

Nutritionally, basmati provides mainly complex carbohydrates, moderate protein, very low fat and, in the brown form, a relevant fibre contribution. Its low to moderate glycaemic index, combined with the fact that it is naturally gluten-free, enables its use in a wide range of dietary patterns, including those focused on glycaemic control and gluten-free eating, provided that portion sizes and overall meal composition are carefully managed.

As a staple or side dish, basmati can contribute to balanced diets when combined with adequate sources of vegetables, high-quality proteins and healthy fats, forming part of varied and culturally rich eating patterns.

Mini-glossary

• Glycaemic index (GI) – numerical indicator of how quickly a food raises blood glucose compared with a reference (usually glucose or white bread).

• Long-grain rice – rice with a high length-to-width ratio, producing elongated grains that tend to remain separate when cooked.

• Pilaf – cooking method in which rice is first lightly sautéed and then cooked in a measured volume of liquid, resulting in separate, fluffy grains.

• Wholegrain (brown) rice – rice where only the husk has been removed; bran and germ are retained, increasing fibre and micronutrient content.

• SFA – Saturated Fatty Acids; dietary fats that, in excess, are linked to higher LDL cholesterol.

• MUFA – MonoUnsaturated Fatty Acids; unsaturated fats that may help improve lipid profiles when replacing part of SFA.

• PUFA – PolyUnsaturated Fatty Acids; include n-6 and n-3 fatty acids, important in many physiological processes when consumed in appropriate amounts and balance.

Studies

In general, rice contains more than 100 bioactive substances mainly in its bran layer including phytic acid, isovitexin, gamma-oryzanol, phytosterols, octacosanol, squalene, gamma-aminobutyric acid, tocopherol and derived from tocotrienol (1), antioxidants.

It does not contain beta carotene (provitamin A) and has a very low iron and zinc content (2).

In rice bran there are bioactive phytochemicals that exert protective actions against cancer that involve the metabolism of the host and the intestinal microbiome. A diet based on rice bran has shown positive effects in reducing the risk of colon cancer (3).

Rice studies

Allergies: Be careful, rice contains a certain amount of lactose.

The most common types of rice used are :

• Arborio : large grains,  the most common in Italy
• Ribe : elongated grains.
• Thaibonnet : medium, elongated and fine grains
• Rome : large grains
• Basmati : thin and elongated grains. Grown in Pakistan and India
• Carnaroli : large grains
• Vialone nano : large, round grains
• Original or Balilla : small round grains
• Jasmine : fine grains of Asian origin
• Red : red, small and narrow grains
• Wild : Zizania palustris
• Baldo : large, shiny grains
• Ganges : from India
• Footboard : releases a lot of starch
• Venus : from China and the Po Valley
• Patna : from Thailand. Long and narrow grains
• Sant'Andrea : Thick and long grains. Releases a lot of starch

Rice viruses and pests: Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Rice yellow mottle virus, Magnaporthe oryzae , Rice Tungro Bacilliform Virus , Lissorhoptrus oryzophilus Kuschel, Oebalus pugnax, Xanthomonas oryzae

References____________________________________________________________________

(1)  Bidlack W. Phytochemicals as bioacive agents. Lancaster, Basel, Switzerland: Technomic Publishing Co., Inc; 1999. pp. 25–36.

(2) Singh SP, Gruissem W, Bhullar NK.   Single genetic locus improvement of iron, zinc and β-carotene content in rice grains.    Sci Rep. 2017 Jul 31;7(1):6883. doi: 10.1038/s41598-017-07198-5.

Abstract. Nearly half of the world's population obtains its daily calories from rice grains, which lack or have insufficient levels of essential micronutrients. The deficiency of micronutrients vital for normal growth is a global health problem, and iron, zinc and vitamin A deficiencies are the most prevalent ones. We developed rice lines expressing Arabidopsis NICOTIANAMINE SYNTHASE 1 (AtNAS1), bean FERRITIN (PvFERRITIN), bacterial CAROTENE DESATURASE (CRTI) and maize PHYTOENE SYNTHASE (ZmPSY) in a single genetic locus in order to increase iron, zinc and β-carotene content in the rice endosperm. NAS catalyzes the synthesis of nicotianamine (NA), which is a precursor of deoxymugeneic acid (DMA) iron and zinc chelators, and also chelate iron and zinc for long distance transport. FERRITIN provides efficient storage of up to 4500 iron ions. PSY catalyzes the conversion of GGDP to phytoene, and CRTI performs the function of desaturases required for the synthesis of β-carotene from phytoene. All transgenic rice lines have significantly increased β-carotene, iron, and zinc content in the polished rice grains. Our results establish a proof-of-concept for multi-nutrient enrichment of rice grains from a single genetic locus, thus offering a sustainable and effective approach to address different micronutrient deficiencies at once.

(3) Zarei I, Oppel RC, Borresen EC, Brown RJ, Ryan EP. Modulation of plasma and urine metabolome in colorectal cancer survivors consuming rice bran.  Integr Food Nutr Metab. 2019 May;6(3). doi: 10.15761/IFNM.1000252.

Abstract. Rice bran has bioactive phytochemicals with cancer protective actions that involve metabolism by the host and the gut microbiome. Globally, colorectal cancer (CRC) is the third leading cause of cancer-related death and the increased incidence is largely attributed to poor dietary patterns, including low daily fiber intake. A dietary intervention trial was performed to investigate the impact of rice bran consumption on the plasma and urine metabolome of CRC survivors. Nineteen CRC survivors participated in a randomized-controlled trial that included consumption of heat-stabilized rice bran (30 g/day) or a control diet without rice bran for 4 weeks. A fasting plasma and first void of the morning urine sample were analyzed by non-targeted metabolomics using ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS). After 4 weeks of either rice bran or control diets, 12 plasma and 16 urine metabolites were significantly different between the groups (p≤0.05). Rice bran intake increased relative abundance of plasma mannose (1.373-fold) and beta-citrylglutamate (BCG) (1.593-fold), as well as increased urine N-formylphenylalanine (2.191-fold) and dehydroisoandrosterone sulfate (DHEA-S) (4.488-fold). Diet affected metabolites, such as benzoate, mannose, eicosapentaenoate (20:5n3) (EPA), and N-formylphenylalanine have been previously reported for cancer protection and were identified from the rice bran food metabolome. Nutritional metabolome changes following increased consumption of whole grains such as rice bran warrants continued investigation for colon cancer control and prevention attributes as dietary biomarkers for positive effects are needed to reduce high risk for colorectal cancer recurrence.

Brown DG, Borresen EC, Brown RJ, Ryan EP. Heat-stabilised rice bran consumption by colorectal cancer survivors modulates stool metabolite profiles and metabolic networks: a randomised controlled trial. Br J Nutr. 2017 May;117(9):1244-1256. doi: 10.1017/S0007114517001106. 

Abstract. Rice bran (RB) consumption has been shown to reduce colorectal cancer (CRC) growth in mice and modify the human stool microbiome. Changes in host and microbial metabolism induced by RB consumption was hypothesised to modulate the stool metabolite profile in favour of promoting gut health and inhibiting CRC growth. The objective was to integrate gut microbial metabolite profiles and identify metabolic pathway networks for CRC chemoprevention using non-targeted metabolomics. In all, nineteen CRC survivors participated in a parallel randomised controlled dietary intervention trial that included daily consumption of study-provided foods with heat-stabilised RB (30 g/d) or no additional ingredient (control). Stool samples were collected at baseline and 4 weeks and analysed using GC-MS and ultra-performance liquid chromatography-MS. Stool metabolomics revealed 93 significantly different metabolites in individuals consuming RB. A 264-fold increase in β-hydroxyisovaleroylcarnitine and 18-fold increase in β-hydroxyisovalerate exemplified changes in leucine, isoleucine and valine metabolism in the RB group. A total of thirty-nine stool metabolites were significantly different between RB and control groups, including increased hesperidin (28-fold) and narirutin (14-fold). Metabolic pathways impacted in the RB group over time included advanced glycation end products, steroids and bile acids. Fatty acid, leucine/valine and vitamin B6 metabolic pathways were increased in RB compared with control. There were 453 metabolites identified in the RB food metabolome, thirty-nine of which were identified in stool from RB consumers. RB consumption favourably modulated the stool metabolome of CRC survivors and these findings suggest the need for continued dietary CRC chemoprevention efforts.

Beyer P, Al-Babili S, Ye X, Lucca P, Schaub P, Welsch R, Potrykus I. Golden Rice: introducing the beta-carotene biosynthesis pathway into rice endosperm by genetic engineering to defeat vitamin A deficiency. J Nutr. 2002 Mar;132(3):506S-510S. doi: 10.1093/jn/132.3.506S. 

 Abstract. To obtain a functioning provitamin A (beta-carotene) biosynthetic pathway in rice endosperm, we introduced in a single, combined transformation effort the cDNA coding for phytoene synthase (psy) and lycopene beta-cyclase (beta-lcy) both from Narcissus pseudonarcissus and both under the control of the endosperm-specific glutelin promoter together with a bacterial phytoene desaturase (crtI, from Erwinia uredovora under constitutive 35S promoter control). This combination covers the requirements for beta-carotene synthesis and, as hoped, yellow beta-carotene-bearing rice endosperm was obtained in the T(0)-generation. Additional experiments revealed that the presence of beta-lcy was not necessary, because psy and crtI alone were able to drive beta-carotene synthesis as well as the formation of further downstream xanthophylls. Plausible explanations for this finding are that these downstream enzymes are constitutively expressed in rice endosperm or are induced by the transformation, e.g., by enzymatically formed products. Results using N. pseudonarcissus as a model system led to the development of a hypothesis, our present working model, that trans-lycopene or a trans-lycopene derivative acts as an inductor in a kind of feedback mechanism stimulating endogenous carotenogenic genes. Various institutional arrangements for disseminating Golden Rice to research institutes in developing countries also are discussed.