Spelt was one of Europe's most important cereals in the early 20th century, but was gradually replaced by wheat for its better cooking qualities. Spelt is an ancient type of wheat, also known as Triticum spelta, valued for its nutty flavor and chewy texture. It's a popular choice in health-conscious cooking, often used as a substitute for wheat in grain-based dishes due to its superior nutritional profile and digestibility. Although it contains gluten, some people with gluten sensitivities find spelt more tolerable than other grains.

Over time, the food industry has used different varieties of spelt:

• Triticum spelta L. (Triticum aestivum ssp. spelta L. em Thell.)

• Triticum dicoccum Schrank

• Triticum monococcum L.

Botanical classification

• Common name: spelt, dinkel wheat

• Scientific name: Triticum spelta

• Family: Poaceae (Gramineae)

• Genus: Triticum

• Origin: temperate areas of Western Asia and the Mediterranean basin, later spread to Central Europe

• Growth habit: annual cereal, with erect culms usually 80–140 cm tall, long compact spike, hulled grain (caryopses tightly enclosed by adhering glumes)

Cultivation and growing conditions

Climate

• Prefers temperate to cool–temperate climates.

• More rustic than common wheat: tolerates winter cold well and performs on poorer soils.

• Well adapted to cool hilly and montane areas, where common wheat often gives mediocre results.

Exposure

• Requires full sun for good tillering and proper grain filling.

• In shaded locations it becomes lanky, lodges more easily and yields less.

Soil

• Adapts to many soil types, but does best in medium or light, well-drained soils.

• More tolerant than other wheats of relatively poor or slightly acidic soils, though it yields more in moderately fertile soils.

• Does not like prolonged waterlogging or severe soil compaction.

Irrigation

• Traditionally grown under rainfed conditions, relying on autumn–spring rainfall.

• In very dry regions, a supplementary irrigation at stem elongation/heading can improve yield and grain filling.

• Generally more drought-tolerant than common wheat, but prolonged drought during flowering and grain filling is detrimental.

Temperature

• Optimal germination and early development between 8 and 18 °C.

• Autumn–sown (winter) types require a period of moderate cold (vernalisation) to complete the cycle.

• Tolerates winter cold well, especially in well-established young stands.

Fertilization

• Less demanding in nitrogen than modern bread wheats and well suited to low-input or organic systems.

• A good supply of phosphorus and potassium before sowing is important.

• Excess nitrogen increases lodging and favours fungal diseases, without real benefits for quality.

Crop management

• Requires a well-prepared seedbed, with fine tilth and level surface.

• Autumn sowing (October–November, depending on region) is most common; late winter/spring sowing is possible with suitable varieties.

• Usually shows good competitiveness against weeds thanks to vigorous tillering; in early stages, where needed, mechanical weeding (organic) or selective herbicides (conventional) can be used.

• In crop rotations it helps break weed and disease cycles compared with other cereals.

Harvest

• Typically harvested between late June and August, depending on sowing time and location.

• Grain is harvested hulled, i.e. still enclosed in tightly adhering glumes, and must be dehulled to obtain naked kernels.

• Harvest timing is chosen when spikes are fully mature and grain moisture is suitable (avoiding both overly early harvest and excessive drying with grain loss).

Propagation

• Propagated exclusively by seed.

• Healthy, certified seed is important to limit fungal diseases (e.g. bunt, rusts).

• Sowing rate and density are adjusted according to soil fertility, variety and sowing date (higher rates for late sowing).

Indicative nutritional values per 100 g (hulled dry spelt grain)

• Energy: ~330–360 kcal

• Water: ~10–12 g

• Total carbohydrates: ~60–70 g

  • starch: predominant fraction

  • simple sugars: ~1–3 g

• Protein: ~12–17 g (depending on variety and growing conditions)

• Total dietary fibre: ~8–11 g

• Total fat: ~2–3 g

  • SFA: minor fraction

  • MUFA: moderate share (e.g. oleic acid)

  • PUFA: relevant share, mainly linoleic acid (n-6)

  • TFA (natural trans fatty acids): negligible

• Vitamins: B-group vitamins (thiamine, niacin, folate, etc.), vitamin E in the germ lipid fraction

• Minerals: phosphorus, magnesium, manganese, iron, zinc, potassium

(Values refer to whole, hulled grain; refined flours have lower fibre and micronutrient content.)

Key constituents

• Macronutrients

  • starch as the main energy source

  • gluten-forming proteins (gliadins and glutenins)

  • insoluble fibre (bran) plus a smaller soluble fibre fraction

• Lipid fraction

  • unsaturated fatty acids (especially linoleic and oleic acids)

  • small amounts of SFA (e.g. palmitic acid)

  • tocopherols (vitamin E) located mainly in the germ

• Micronutrients

  • B-group vitamins (B1, B2, B3, B6, folates)

  • minerals: phosphorus, magnesium, potassium, iron, zinc, copper, manganese

• Phytochemicals

  • phenolic acids (e.g. ferulic acid) bound to the fibre fraction

  • lignans and other components associated with bran

Production process

• Cultivation

  • Typically autumn sowing in temperate regions, with a winter–spring growth cycle.

  • Good rusticity, tolerance to poorer soils and cool conditions.

  • Well suited to low-input and organic systems.

• Harvesting

  • Combine harvesting at full grain maturity when moisture content is suitable for storage.

• Post-harvest

  • Drying (if needed) to around 12–14 % moisture.

  • Dehusking (dehulling) to remove the tightly adhering hulls and obtain “hulled/decorticated” spelt grain.

  • Cleaning, sizing and sorting of grain.

• Processing

  • Milling to wholemeal, semi-wholemeal or refined flours.

  • Production of semolina for pasta and extruded products.

  • Flaking, pearling or pre-cooking for “ready-to-cook” grains.

• Storage

  • Grain stored in silos or suitable bags in cool, dry, ventilated conditions.

  • Flours and semolina packed in moisture- and light-protective packaging.

Physical properties

• Hulled grain: elongated kernels, straw-yellow to amber in colour.

• Bulk density and grain size similar to wheat, with a relatively higher bran fraction in wholemeal products.

• Flour: cream–beige colour, often slightly darker than standard refined wheat flour.

• Rheology: gluten generally less “strong” and elastic than in some modern bread wheats, affecting dough handling and loaf volume.

Sensory and technological properties

• Aroma: pronounced cereal aroma with light nutty and malty notes.

• Taste: full, slightly sweet and “rustic”, more characterful than common wheat.

• Technological functionality:

  • suitable for bread, flatbreads, focaccia, crackers, biscuits and cakes, often alone or blended with other flours,

  • good aptitude for pasta making (spelt pasta), with a slightly rougher texture and marked flavour,

  • whole grains have cooking times comparable to other whole cereals (roughly 20–40 minutes, depending on format and pre-treatment).

Food applications

• Whole or cracked grains:

  • grain salads, soups, stews and hot or cold one-dish meals.

• Spelt flours:

  • bread, rolls, pizza, focaccia, crackers, breadsticks,

  • biscuits, cakes, muffins and other baked goods,

  • fresh and dried pasta (100 % spelt or blends).

• Industrial derivatives:

  • flakes for muesli and breakfast cereals,

  • wholegrain and “wellness” products in bakery and snacks.

Nutrition and health

• High fibre content supports normal bowel function and promotes higher satiety compared with refined cereal products.

• Protein contributes to maintenance of muscle mass and normal body functions; however, spelt contains gluten and is not suitable for people with coeliac disease.

• The modest lipid fraction is predominantly unsaturated; within a balanced diet, this profile is considered more favourable than a higher SFA proportion.

• B-group vitamins and minerals (magnesium, iron, zinc) support energy metabolism, reduction of tiredness and normal nervous system function.

• Regular consumption of wholegrain cereals, including whole spelt, is associated in the literature with better weight management and reduced risk of certain chronic diseases when combined with an overall healthy lifestyle.

Portion note

• Dry hulled spelt grain (for cooking): about 60–80 g per adult serving (corresponding to roughly 150–200 g cooked).

• Spelt pasta or bread: similar portions to wheat-based products (e.g. ~80–100 g dry pasta, 40–60 g bread per serving), to be adjusted according to individual energy needs.

Allergens and intolerances

• Spelt contains gluten (wheat-type proteins):

  • not suitable for people with coeliac disease,

  • not suitable for those with wheat allergy or non-coeliac gluten sensitivity. 

• As with other cereals, cross-contamination with additional allergens (e.g. soy, tree nuts, sesame) may occur depending on processing equipment; labels should always be checked.

Storage and shelf-life

• Hulled grain:

  • store in a cool, dry place away from direct light and pests; under good conditions, shelf-life can be several months.

• Spelt flours:

  • more sensitive to oxidation and rancidity of the lipid fraction, especially wholemeal flours,

  • typical shelf-life 3–9 months depending on extraction rate (wholemeal is more delicate) and storage conditions.

• Finished products (bread, pasta, snacks):

  • shelf-life depends on formulation (water content, fats, preservatives, packaging); fresh bread has short shelf-life, whereas dry pasta and crackers are more stable.

Safety and regulatory

• All steps of cultivation, harvesting, storage and processing must comply with GMP and HACCP principles, with particular attention to:

  • mycotoxin contamination (e.g. deoxynivalenol, ochratoxin A),

  • foreign bodies and physical contaminants,

  • microbiological quality during storage and processing.

• Products targeted at specific groups (e.g. high-fibre, organic, low-salt) must comply with relevant legislation and conditions for nutritional and health claims.

Labelling

• Spelt-based products should include:

  • sales name (e.g. “spelt grain”, “hulled spelt”, “spelt flour”),

  • full ingredient list in descending order by weight,

  • clear indication of the presence of gluten (generally through the cereal name itself, according to local rules),

  • nutrition declaration (energy, fat, carbohydrates, fibre, protein, salt),

  • information on origin, production methods (e.g. “organic”) and any nutrition/health claims only if compliant with legislation.

Troubleshooting

• Over-firm or mushy cooked grains

  • Causes: inappropriate cooking time, inadequate soaking, variation in dehulling degree.

  • Solutions: test-cook for each batch, adjust soaking and cooking times, provide clear on-pack cooking instructions.

• Poorly risen or dense spelt bread

  • Causes: weaker gluten network than in strong bread wheats, suboptimal hydration or fermentation.

  • Solutions: adjust hydration and mixing/fermentation times, use preferments, or blend with stronger flours where appropriate.

• Rancid or “old” flour flavour

  • Causes: oxidation of the lipid fraction due to prolonged or inadequate storage.

  • Solutions: shorten storage times, improve conditions (cool, dry, protected from light), rotate stock more frequently.

Sustainability and supply chain

• Spelt is regarded as a relatively rustic crop, well suited to low-input and organic systems and adaptable to marginal soils.

• As part of crop rotations, it supports soil structure and can help reduce weed and disease pressure compared with intensive monocultures.

• Lower input use in many spelt supply chains (especially organic) can translate into reduced overall environmental impact.

• Processing by-products (bran, fine screenings) can be used in animal feed or as fibre-rich ingredients, improving resource efficiency.

• Proper management of process water and effluents, including monitoring of BOD and COD, contributes to the environmental sustainability of milling and processing plants.

Main INCI functions (cosmetics)

(Mainly referring to wheat/spelt-derived cosmetic ingredients.)

• skin conditioning – supports skin hydration and comfort through water-soluble components (starches, partially hydrolysed proteins).

• film forming – some protein/starch fractions form a light surface film that can improve skin feel.

• antioxidant – phenolic compounds and vitamin E (if germ components are present in the extract) can help protect the product from oxidation.

• hair conditioning – hydrolysed wheat/spelt proteins are used to improve hair combability and visual appearance.

Conclusion

Content and composition of bioactive compounds is reported to vary depending on the geographical location, seasonal variations, varieties used, and the analytical methods followed (1).

Spelt contains, especially in its bran, the outer layer, monounsaturated fatty acids that reduce the risks of arteriosclerosis and lower cholesterol.

Discrete concentrations of zinc and iron were detected in the grains (2).

This study compared 6 different varieties of spelt and concluded that all analyzed spelt varieties possessed high antioxidant potential. In spite of the fact that bound phenolic acids possessed higher antioxidant activities, analysis of antioxidant potential and their relationship with phenolic acid content showed that free phenolics were more effective (3).

The pattern of Triticum monococcum gliadin proteins is sufficiently different from those of common hexaploid wheat to determine a lower toxicity in celiac disease patients following in vitro simulation of human digestion (4).

Spelt studies

References______________________________________________________________________

(1) Dhanavath S, Prasada Rao UJS. Nutritional and Nutraceutical Properties of Triticum dicoccum Wheat and Its Health Benefits: An Overview. J Food Sci. 2017 Oct;82(10):2243-2250. doi: 10.1111/1750-3841.13844.

(2) Srinivasa J, Arun B, Mishra VK, Singh GP, Velu G, Babu R, Vasistha NK, Joshi AK. Zinc and iron concentration QTL mapped in a Triticum spelta × T. aestivum cross. Theor Appl Genet. 2014 Jul;127(7):1643-51. doi: 10.1007/s00122-014-2327-6. 

Abstract. Ten QTL underlying the accumulation of Zn and Fe in the grain were mapped in a set of RILs bred from the cross Triticum spelta × T. aestivum . Five of these loci (two for Zn and three for Fe) were consistently detected across seven environments. The genetic basis of accumulation in the grain of Zn and Fe was investigated via QTL mapping in a recombinant inbred line (RIL) population bred from a cross between Triticum spelta and T. aestivum. The concentration of the two elements was measured from grain produced in three locations over two consecutive cropping seasons and from a greenhouse trial. The range in Zn and Fe concentration across the RILs was, respectively, 18.8-73.5 and 25.3-59.5 ppm, and the concentrations of the two elements were positively correlated with one another (rp =+0.79). Ten QTL (five each for Zn and Fe accumulation) were detected, mapping to seven different chromosomes. The chromosome 2B and 6A grain Zn QTL were consistently expressed across environments. The proportion of the phenotype explained (PVE) by QZn.bhu-2B was >16 %, and the locus was closely linked to the SNP marker 1101425|F|0, while QZn.bhu-6A (7.0 % PVE) was closely linked to DArT marker 3026160|F|0. Of the five Fe QTL detected, three, all mapping to chromosome 1A were detected in all seven environments. The PVE for QFe.bhu-3B was 26.0 %.

(3) Gawlik-Dziki U, Świeca M, Dziki D. Comparison of phenolic acids profile and antioxidant potential of six varieties of spelt (Triticum spelta L.). J Agric Food Chem. 2012 May 9;60(18):4603-12. doi: 10.1021/jf3011239. 

 Abstract. Phenolic acids profile and antioxidant activity of six diverse varieties of spelt are reported. Antioxidant activity was assessed using eight methods based on different mechanism of action. Phenolic acids composition of spelt differed significantly between varieties and ranged from 506.6 to 1257.4 μg/g DW. Ferulic and sinapinic acids were the predominant phenolic acids found in spelt. Total ferulic acid content ranged from 144.2 to 691.5 μg/g DW. All analyzed spelt varieties possessed high antioxidant potential. In spite of the fact that bound phenolic acids possessed higher antioxidant activities, analysis of antioxidant potential and their relationship with phenolic acid content showed that free phenolics were more effective. Eight antioxidant methods were integrated to obtain a total antioxidant capacity index that may be used for comparison of total antioxidant capacity of spelt varieties. Total antioxidant potential of spelt cultivars were ordered as follows: Ceralio > Spelt INZ ≈ Ostro > Oberkulmer Rotkorn > Schwabenspelz > Schwabenkorn.

 (4) Gianfrani C, Camarca A, Mazzarella G, Di Stasio L, Giardullo N, Ferranti P, Picariello G, Rotondi Aufiero V, Picascia S, Troncone R, Pogna N, Auricchio S, Mamone G. Extensive in vitro gastrointestinal digestion markedly reduces the immune-toxicity of Triticum monococcum wheat: implication for celiac disease. Mol Nutr Food Res. 2015 Sep;59(9):1844-54. doi: 10.1002/mnfr.201500126. 

 Gawlik-Dziki U, Świeca M, Dziki D. Comparison of phenolic acids profile and antioxidant potential of six varieties of spelt (Triticum spelta L.). J Agric Food Chem. 2012 May 9;60(18):4603-12. doi: 10.1021/jf3011239.

Abstract. Phenolic acids profile and antioxidant activity of six diverse varieties of spelt are reported. Antioxidant activity was assessed using eight methods based on different mechanism of action. Phenolic acids composition of spelt differed significantly between varieties and ranged from 506.6 to 1257.4 μg/g DW. Ferulic and sinapinic acids were the predominant phenolic acids found in spelt. Total ferulic acid content ranged from 144.2 to 691.5 μg/g DW. All analyzed spelt varieties possessed high antioxidant potential. In spite of the fact that bound phenolic acids possessed higher antioxidant activities, analysis of antioxidant potential and their relationship with phenolic acid content showed that free phenolics were more effective. Eight antioxidant methods were integrated to obtain a total antioxidant capacity index that may be used for comparison of total antioxidant capacity of spelt varieties. Total antioxidant potential of spelt cultivars were ordered as follows: Ceralio > Spelt INZ ≈ Ostro > Oberkulmer Rotkorn > Schwabenspelz > Schwabenkorn.

Mencin M, Mikulic-Petkovsek M, Veberič R, Terpinc P. Development and Optimisation of Solid-Phase Extraction of Extractable and Bound Phenolic Acids in Spelt (Triticum spelta L.) Seeds. Antioxidants (Basel). 2021 Jul 5;10(7):1085. doi: 10.3390/antiox10071085.

Abstract. A solid-phase extraction (SPE) technique was developed and optimised for isolation and concentration of extractable and bound phenolic acids from germinated spelt seeds, for analysis by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Samples initially underwent solvent extraction under different conditions to maximise the yield of phenolic antioxidants. Optimal extraction conditions for extractable phenolics were absolute methanol as solvent, sample-to-methanol ratio 1:9, and reconstitution in non-acidified water. The bound phenolics were extracted from sample pellets using hydrolysis with 2 M NaOH, acidification of the hydrolysate with formic acid, and simultaneous isolation and purification using Strata X polymeric RP tubes. Compared to liquid-liquid extraction, this direct SPE protocol has significant advantages in terms of higher extraction efficiencies of total and individual phenolics and their antioxidant activities. These data suggest that direct SPE represents a rapid and reliable method for quantitative analysis of both the extractable and the commonly overlooked bound phenolics in Triticum spelta seeds.

Irmak S, Vapur H. Correlation of manganese contents of soils and wheat plants (Triticum spelta) in the Cukurova Region of Turkey. Pak J Biol Sci. 2008 Oct 1;11(19):2331-5. doi: 10.3923/pjbs.2008.2331.2335.

Abstract. In this study, the statistical analysis of manganese contents for soil, leaf and grain samples of the wheat plants, Triticum spelta, in the Cukurova Region of Adana in Turkey was performed to determine the relationship among the variables and correlation coefficients of manganese (Mn) contents. The soil samples were taken from the plant rhizosphere. Leaf samples at the stem elongation time and grain samples at the physiological maturity stage were analysed for Mn contents. The Mn contents of soil (MnS) were between 1.47 and 3.80 mg kg(-1), but the MnS of some samples were measured below the critical level of soil (1.00 mg kg(-1)). Whereas Mn contents of leaves (MnL) were obtained between 47.55 and 126.40 mg kg(-1). The Mn contents of grain (MnG) were obtained between 20.16 and 49.08 mg kg(-1). Direct correlation was found between MnL and MnG. But indirect correlations between was found MnS and MnG. Correlation between MnL and MnG was significant at the 0.01 level according to statistical analysis.

Wachowska, U., Rychcik, B., Mikołajczyk, W., & Sadowski, T. (2012). Health of spelt wheat (Triticum spelta) cultivated in ecological and conventional systems.

Abstract. In 2008-2010, in the area of north-eastern Poland, a field experiment was carried out in a randomised block design in three replications, in which spelt wheat of the Schwabenkorn cultivar was grown in ecological and conventional systems. The aim of the research was to assess the health condition of spelt wheat cultivated in the compared crop rotation systems. Symptoms of powdery mildew of cereals and grasses, septoria leaf blotch of wheat and wheat brown rust were observed on the leaves of spelt wheat. The intensity of those diseases was significantly dependent on the year of research. In 2008, lower leaves of spelt wheat showed prevailing symptoms of infection with Blumeria graminis and Puccinia recondita and in the other years of research they displayed symptoms of leaf infestation with Mycosphaerella graminicola. The average intensity of symptoms of powdery mildew of cereals and grasses was significantly lower in the ecological crop rotation than in the conventional crop rotation system. Symptoms of brown rust were most frequently observed in the ecological crop rotation system. The system of crop cultivation did not have a significant effect on the intensity of septoria leaf blotch of spelt wheat or the intensity of stem base diseases.

Kiš, D., Kalambura, S., Marić, S., Guberac, V., Jovičić, N., Guberac, S., & Slipčević, D. (2016). Spelt (Triticum spelta L.)-healthy food.

Abstract. Spelt (Triticum spelta L.), also known as dinkel wheat or hulled wheat, is one of the oldest known grains and it originates from Asia. It was known even to the Egyptians, the oldest findings of this type of wheat were found in the Nile valley and they date to the fourth millennium BC. This edible, chaff-like, type of wheat was used for food by the ancient Romans who grew it throughout the empire. This cereal was very important from the Bronze Age to the Middle Ages in Europe. However, in recent times it has largely been replaced by other types of wheat (Triticum aestivum and Triticum durum). This grain has again started attracting attention in the past two decades because of the possibility of organic breeding, since it requires lesser use of fertilizers and pesticides compared to the common wheat. Due to the increasing awareness of consumers who pay more attention every day to the variety and quality of food, spelt is increasingly gaining importance with the tendency of multiplying sown areas so the goal of this study was to determine the nutritional characteristics of spelt shelled beans of studied varieties Bc Vigor and Ostro (water content, ash, starch, protein  and crude fat) for  nutritional  use.

Spelt studies

Ziegler JU, Wahl S, Würschum T, Longin CF, Carle R, Schweiggert RM. Lutein and lutein esters in whole grain flours made from 75 genotypes of 5 triticum species grown at multiple sites. J Agric Food Chem. 2015 May 27;63(20):5061-71. doi: 10.1021/acs.jafc.5b01477. 

Abstract. Concentrations of lutein and lutein esters were determined in an ample collection of 75 wheat genotypes comprising bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), durum (Triticum durum Desf.), spelt (Triticum spelta L.), emmer (Triticum dicoccum Schrank), and einkorn (Triticum monococcum L.) grown in five different environments. Einkorn genotypes showed the highest total amounts of lutein (4.5-7.8 μg/g dry matter), followed by durum (2.0-4.6 μg/g), spelt (0.9-2.0 μg/g), emmer (0.8-1.9 μg/g), and bread wheat (0.7-2.0 μg/g). Due to the observed highly significant genetic variance and high heritability, lutein contents of wheat genotypes may be increased by future plant breeding. Detailed HPLC-DAD-APCI(±)-MS(n) data allowing the identification of six lutein monoesters and nine diesters are presented. Linoleic, palmitic, and oleic acids were the most abundant fatty acids in both the lutein esters and total free lipid fractions. Lutein esters were virtually absent in the tetraploid durum and emmer species, whereas their concentrations considerably differed among the genotypes belonging to the other species.

Trümper C, Paffenholz K, Smit I, Kössler P, Karlovsky P, Braun HP, Pawelzik E. Identification of Differently Regulated Proteins after
Fusarium graminearum Infection of Emmer (Triticum dicoccum) at Several Grain Ripening Stages. Food Technol Biotechnol. 2015 Sep;53(3):261-268. doi: 10.17113/ftb.53.03.15.3838. 

Abstract. This study was conducted to improve the knowledge of molecular processes involved in the interaction between Fusarium graminearum and emmer in the course of grain ripening. Emmer plants were artificially inoculated with a F. graminearum spore suspension at anthesis. In the course of grain ripening from milk ripe to plant death stage, grains at four phenological growth stages were collected for analysis. The infection degree was evaluated based on the F. graminearum DNA content in emmer grain infolding tissues (glumes and rachis). For proteome analysis the albumin and globulin fractions of emmer grains, consisting of proteins with various functions related to the development and stress response, were analysed regarding the changes due to Fusarium infection by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis. Altogether, forty-three proteins affected by infection were identified by mass spectrometry. Enzymes detoxifying reactive oxygen species were regulated at all developmental stages. In the early stage of grain development, the abundance of proteins related to stress response, such as 2-Cys peroxiredoxin, a chitinase, a xylanase inhibitor and a spermidine synthase was increased. During later stage of grain development, the abundance of stress-related proteins, such as chitinases, heat shock proteins and an α-amylase inhibitor-like protein, decreased. During all ripening stages, but especially during medium milk stage (BBCH 75) and soft dough stage (BBCH 85), the abundance of proteins related to carbon metabolism, starch and protein biosynthesis as well as photosynthesis increased due to F. graminearum infection. At the plant death stage (BBCH 97) the abundance of only two proteins related to metabolism decreased.

Mozzon M, Boselli E, Obiedziński MW, Frega NG. Occurrence of biogenic amines in beers produced with malted organic Emmer wheat (Triticum dicoccum). Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess. 2015;32(5):756-67. doi: 10.1080/19440049.2015.1015458. 

Abstract. Because several groups of microorganisms are able to decarboxylate amino acids, the presence of biogenic amines (BA) can be seen as an index of the microbiological quality of the brewing process. BAs were quantified for the first time in the intermediate products and craft beers produced with malted organic Emmer wheat (Triticum dicoccum) in a small size brewery in order to assess the possible presence of critical control points related to biological hazard in the brewing process. BA levels in beers produced exclusively from malted organic Emmer wheat were between 15.4 and 25.2 mg l(-1) in the samples of light beer (Lt) and between 8.9 and 15.3 mg l(-1) in double malt beers (DM) ready for consumption (the beers stored for 90 days at 1-2°C). Cadaverine and tyramine were the main BAs in the Lt and DM beers, respectively. Increased concentrations of BAs seemed to be more related to the heat treatment of the processing product during mashing and wort boiling, rather than to the fermentation process. Much lower concentrations were found in finished beers obtained from 50% malted organic Emmer wheat and 50% malted barley (up to 3.2 mg l(-1)) or from 30% malted Emmer wheat (up to 8.3 mg l(-1)). Thus, Emmer wheat malt can be a useful alternative to wheat and spelt for the production of beer with a limited content of BA, if the processing technology is kept under control.

Lombardo C, Bolla M, Chignola R, Senna G, Rossin G, Caruso B, Tomelleri C, Cecconi D, Brandolini A, Zoccatelli G. Study on the Immunoreactivity of Triticum monococcum (Einkorn) Wheat in Patients with Wheat-Dependent Exercise-Induced Anaphylaxis for the Production of Hypoallergenic Foods. J Agric Food Chem. 2015 Sep 23;63(37):8299-306. doi: 10.1021/acs.jafc.5b02648. 

Abstract. Wheat [Triticum aestivum (T.a.)] ingestion can cause a specific allergic reaction, which is called wheat-dependent exercise-induced anaphylaxis (WDEIA). The major allergen involved is ω-5 gliadin, a gluten protein coded by genes located on the B genome. Our aim was to study the immunoreactivity of proteins in Triticum monococcum (einkorn, T.m.), a diploid ancestral wheat lacking B chromosomes, for possible use in the production of hypoallergenic foods. A total of 14 patients with a clear history of WDEIA and specific immunoglobulin E (IgE) to ω-5 gliadin were enrolled. Skin prick test (SPT) with a commercial wheat extract and an in-house T.a. gluten diagnostic solution tested positive for 43 and 100% of the cases, respectively. No reactivity in patients tested with solutions prepared from four T.m. accessions was observed. The immunoblotting of T.m. gluten proteins performed with the sera of patients showed different IgE-binding profiles with respect to T.a., confirming the absence of ω-5 gliadin. A general lower immunoreactivity of T.m. gluten proteins with scarce cross-reactivity to ω-5 gliadin epitopes was assessed by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Given the absence of reactivity by SPT and the limited cross-reactivity with ω-5 gliadin, T.m. might represent a potential candidate in the production of hypoallergenic bakery products for patients sensitized to ω-5 gliadin. Further analyses need to be carried out regarding its safety.

Fares C, Menga V, Codianni P, Russo M, Perrone D, Suriano S, Savino M, Rascio A. Phenolic acids variability and grain quality of organically and conventionally fertilised old wheats under a warm climate. J Sci Food Agric. 2019 Aug 15;99(10):4615-4623. doi: 10.1002/jsfa.9701. Epub 2019 Apr 29. PMID: 30891757.

Iacomino G, Di Stasio L, Fierro O, Picariello G, Venezia A, Gazza L, Ferranti P, Mamone G. Protective effects of ID331 Triticum monococcum gliadin on in vitro models of the intestinal epithelium. Food Chem. 2016 Dec 1;212:537-42. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.06.014.

Yilmaz VA, Koca AF. Effect of different production techniques on bioactive compounds and antioxidant capacity of einkorn (Triticum monococcum L.) and durum (Triticum turgidum subsp. durum) bulgur. J Sci Food Agric. 2017 Jan;97(1):269-277. doi: 10.1002/jsfa.7724. Epub 2016 Apr 8. PMID: 26997414.

Sicurezza

Mencia G, El-Qutob D, Pineda F, Castillo M. Occupational allergy to Triticum spelta flour. Allergol Int. 2018 Jan;67(1):158-159. doi: 10.1016/j.alit.2017.07.004. Epub 2017 Jul 29. PMID: 28764943.
Allergol Int. 2018 Jan;67(1):158-159. doi: 10.1016/j.alit.2017.07.004.

Veterinaria

Barone F, Laghi L, Gianotti A, Ventrella D, Saa DLT, Bordoni A, Forni M, Brigidi P, Bacci ML, Turroni S. In Vivo Effects of Einkorn Wheat (Triticum monococcum) Bread on the Intestinal Microbiota, Metabolome, and on the Glycemic and Insulinemic Response in the Pig Model. Nutrients. 2018 Dec 20;11(1):16. doi: 10.3390/nu11010016. PMID: 30577558; 

Abstract. Einkorn wheat (Triticum monococcum) is characterized by high content of proteins, bioactive compounds, such as polyunsaturated fatty acids, fructans, tocols, carotenoids, alkylresorcinols, and phytosterols, and lower α-, β-amylase and lipoxygenase activities compared to polyploid wheat. These features make einkorn flour a good candidate to provide healthier foods. In the present study, we investigated the effects of einkorn bread (EB) on the intestinal physiology and metabolism of the pig model by characterizing the glycemic and insulinemic response, and the microbiota and metabolome profiles. Sixteen commercial hybrid pigs were enrolled in the study; four pigs were used to characterize postprandial glycemic and insulinemic responses and twelve pigs underwent a 30-day dietary intervention to assess microbiota and metabolome changes after EB or standard wheat bread (WB) consumption. The postprandial insulin rise after an EB meal was characterized by a lower absolute level, and, as also observed for glucose, by a biphasic shape in contrast to that in response to a WB meal. The consumption of EB led to enrichment in short-chain fatty acid producers (e.g., Blautia, Faecalibacterium, and Oscillospira) in the gut microbiota and to higher metabolic diversity with lower content of succinate, probably related to improved absorption and therefore promoting intestinal gluconeogenesis. The observed changes, at both a compositional and metabolic scale, strongly suggest that EB consumption may support a health-promoting configuration of the intestinal ecosystem.