Cheese
(fermented and/or coagulated food from cow/sheep/goat/buffalo milk; families include fresh, soft, semi-hard, hard, and pasta filata cheeses)

Description

• Produced by coagulating milk (or cream) with rennet and/or acidification by starter cultures, then whey drainage and, depending on type, pressing, salting, and ripening.
• Wide range of textures (spreadable → grating), moisture and aromas (lactic, buttery, fruity, fungal, piquant), including bloomy rind (Penicillium camemberti), blue-veined (P. roqueforti), pasta filata (mozzarella), propionic eyes (emmental), and washed rind styles.

Indicative nutrition values (per 100 g; typical category ranges)

• Fresh/soft (e.g., ricotta, crescenza, feta): Energy 150–280 kcal; Protein 8–18 g; Fat 8–20 g; Carbohydrate (lactose) 1–4 g; Salt (NaCl) 0.7–3 g; Calcium 200–500 mg
• Semi-hard (e.g., caciotta, asiago, gouda): Energy 300–380 kcal; Protein 20–27 g; Fat 24–32 g; Lactose <1–2 g; Salt 1.5–3.5 g; Calcium 500–900 mg
• Hard/grating (e.g., grana, mature pecorino): Energy 380–430 kcal; Protein 28–36 g; Fat 26–32 g; Lactose trace (<0.1 g); Salt 1.5–4 g; Calcium 900–1200 mg
• Vitamins: A (retinol), B2, B12 • Minerals: Ca, P, Zn, Se
• SFA (saturated fats) predominate in the lipid fraction; MUFA/PUFA are lower.

Key constituents

• Milk proteins (caseins + whey; peptides/free amino acids increase with ripening), milk fat (globules; saturated > mono > polyunsaturated), residual lactose (very low in mature cheeses), lactic acid, salts (NaCl, Ca, P).
• Ripening compounds: diacetyl, aldehydes/ketones, free fatty acids, methyl ketones (blue), biogenic amines within good-practice limits.
• Useful microbiota: lactococci/lactobacilli/streptococci; specific molds/yeasts by type.

Production process

• Milk: standardize fat/protein; pasteurized or raw milk per style.
• Inoculate with starter cultures and rennet → coagulation → curd cutting (target size) → optional cooking and whey drainage.
• Molding and pressing → salting (dry or brine) → ripening under controlled T/RH with specific rind care (brushing/washes/inoculation).
• Exceptions: ricotta from whey proteins by heating/acidification; pasta filata cheeses with hot-water stretching.

Physical properties

• pH post-make typically 5.0–5.8 (acid-coagulated forms even 4.4–4.8); aw decreases with aging.
• Moisture: fresh >55–60%; semi-hard 45–54%; hard <45%.
• FDM/MFFB (fat on dry matter / moisture on fat-free basis): key spec indices.
• Color: ivory to straw; structure from spreadable to friable/granular (tyrosine crystals in well-aged cheeses).

Sensory & technological properties

• Meltability and stretch depend on pH, moisture, bound calcium, and salt-in-moisture; mozzarella shows high stretch, while grana-type melts less and browns more.
• Cooking functionality: melt, browning, oil-off vary by type; processed cheeses use emulsifying salts for stability.
• Aromatics evolve via controlled proteolysis/lipolysis; bloomy/washed rinds and blue veining add fungal/animal/nutty notes.

Food applications

• Table & kitchen: pizza, pasta/risotto finishing, sandwiches/toasts, sauces/fondues, gratins.
• Industry: ready meals, fillings, filled extruded snacks, cheese creams, processed cheese, grated and MAP-diced formats.

Nutrition & health

Cheese provides complete proteins (EAA rich in leucine) and is a concentrated source of calcium/phosphorus, with vitamin B12 and A. The fat fraction is significant and mainly saturated (SFA); in balanced diets, portion size and frequency matter, favoring lower-fat/salt options when appropriate.
Salt underpins flavor, safety, and texture but raises sodium intake—labels help in hypertension management. Lactose declines markedly during ripening (down to trace in hard cheeses), so many aged cheeses are better tolerated by lactose-intolerant individuals, though sensitivity is individual. For pregnancy and vulnerable groups, avoid soft-ripened or blue cheeses made from raw milk due to Listeria risk; choose pasteurized or well-aged, lower-aw products. Macro profiles vary: fresh cheeses deliver more water (often higher salt in brine styles), hard cheeses offer higher protein/calcium and fat.

Portion note: practical guides — 30–50 g for semi-hard/hard; 60–100 g for fresh/soft; 10–20 g for grated per serving. Adjust to energy needs and the rest of the meal.

Quality & specifications (typical topics)

• Composition: moisture, FDM, salt, pH, MFFB, protein, ripening index (NPN/soluble N).
• Functional: meltability, stretch, oil-off, browning, shear/texture, particle size for grated.
• Microbiology: criteria for Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella, STEC, Staph. aureus; lactic counts/yeasts/molds to spec.
• Contaminants: aflatoxin M1, metals, veterinary drug residues within limits; nitrite/nitrate only where permitted.
• Defects: irregular eyes/late blowing (clostridia), excessive bitterness (proteolysis/peptides), rancidity (oxidative lipolysis).

Storage & shelf-life

• Fresh/soft: 0–4 °C, barrier/MAP packs; typical 7–21 days.
• Semi-hard/hard: 0–8 °C, coatings or vacuum; 30–365+ days by aging; protect from drying and odor pickup.
• Avoid thermal shocks; after opening, wrap in breathable cheese paper/film and consume promptly. Freezing is suboptimal (syneresis/crumbly texture).

Safety & regulatory

• Food manufactured under GMP/HACCP and dairy hygiene rules; raw milk permitted for specific styles with ripening/hygiene constraints.
• Allergen: milk and dairy—must be labeled.
• PDO/PGI cheeses comply with product specifications on milk, process, region, maturation, and attributes.

Labeling

• Designation by type (e.g., “hard cheese,” “mozzarella,” “blue cheese”); ingredients: milk, rennet, starter cultures, salt (and emulsifying salts in processed cheese; anticaking agents in grated products).
• Milk origin where required; pasteurized/raw milk statement; nutrition table, storage temperature, date code (DMD/expiry).
• Grated cheeses: declare any anticaking agents (e.g., cellulose/potato starch).

Troubleshooting

• Poor melt/weak stretch on pizza → pH too low, high salt-in-moisture, or low moisture → use younger/wetter lots or blends; tune bake time/temperature.
• Excess oil-off → high fat, low bound calcium, or overheat → lower temperature, use cheeses with higher calcium binding, blend with leaner types.
• Bitterness in aged cheeses → advanced proteolysis/bitter peptides → shorten aging or select cultures.
• Late blowing → clostridial contamination → sanitation, forage/silage control, lysozyme where permitted.
• Drying/cracking at service counter → low RH/exposure → improve pack and rotation.

Sustainability & supply chain

• GHG impact tied to dairy farming and refrigeration; mitigation via animal welfare, sustainable feed, manure-to-biogas, and whey valorization (proteins/lactose/energy).
• In-plant: heat recovery, optimized CIP, wastewater to BOD/COD targets, recyclable packaging.
• Milk-to-farm traceability, supplier audits, residue monitoring programs.

INCI functions (cosmetics)

• Casein / Hydrolyzed Casein: film-forming, hair conditioning.
• Lactose: mild humectant/conditioning.
• Hydrolyzed Milk Protein: skin/hair conditioning (manage allergen labeling).

Conclusion

Cheese is a complex food/ingredient: it delivers complete proteins and calcium, offers technological functions (melt, stretch, browning), and remarkable sensory diversity. Quality and safety hinge on milk quality, process microbiology, salting, ripening, and cold chain, while portion control helps balance SFA and sodium in the diet.

Mini-glossary

• SFA/MUFA/PUFA: saturated/mono-/polyunsaturated fatty acids.
• FDM: fat on dry matter — % fat on dry basis.
• MFFB: moisture on fat-free basis — moisture on the fat-free base.
• aw: water activity — lower in aged cheeses → greater stability.
• MAP: modified atmosphere packaging — protective gas mix.
• Starter: lactic cultures driving acidification and ripening.
• Salt-in-moisture: salt in the aqueous phase; affects melt/microbiology.
• PDO/PGI: protected designation/indication of origin.

References__________________________________________________________________________

Laithier C, Coulon JB, Vuitton DA, Lortal S, Loukiadis E. Bénéfices et risques pour la santé de la consommation de fromage. Health benefits and risks of cheese consumption. Rev Prat. 2025 Sep;75(7):779-786.

Abstract. The positive influence of cheese consumption on the intestinal microbiota and the immune system has received solid scientific support over the last 20 years, from cohort studies concerning protection against the clinical manifestations of atopic allergy and its mechanisms. Some of the benefits of eating cheese go against conventional wisdom. In fact, recent studies show that cheese, as part of a healthy diet and lifestyle, is neutral or even protective against cardiovascular diseases; it does not increase either the risk of obesity, high blood pressure or type 2 diabetes. Complementary research is needed to shed light on the role of cheese in the development of neuro-psychiatric illnesses and cancer. Without losing sight of the infectious risks, which are rare in France but can be a serious cause for concern, cheeses appear to offer several health benefits, notably because of their microbial biodiversity, which is particularly rich in raw milk cheeses. However, further work is needed to clarify the specific benefits of these cheeses.

Tilocca B, Soggiu A, Iavarone F, Greco V, Putignani L, Ristori MV, Macari G, Spina AA, Morittu VM, Ceniti C, Piras C, Bonizzi L, Britti D, Urbani A, Figeys D, Roncada P. The Functional Characteristics of Goat Cheese Microbiota from a One-Health Perspective. Int J Mol Sci. 2022 Nov 16;23(22):14131. doi: 10.3390/ijms232214131.

Abstract. Goat cheese is an important element of the Mediterranean diet, appreciated for its health-promoting features and unique taste. A pivotal role in the development of these characteristics is attributed to the microbiota and its continuous remodeling over space and time. Nevertheless, no thorough study of the cheese-associated microbiota using two metaomics approaches has previously been conducted. Here, we employed 16S rRNA gene sequencing and metaproteomics to explore the microbiota of a typical raw goat milk cheese at various ripening timepoints and depths of the cheese wheel. The 16S rRNA gene-sequencing and metaproteomics results described a stable microbiota ecology across the selected ripening timepoints, providing evidence for the microbiologically driven fermentation of goat milk products. The important features of the microbiota harbored on the surface and in the core of the cheese mass were highlighted in both compositional and functional terms. We observed the rind microbiota struggling to maintain the biosafety of the cheese through competition mechanisms and/or by preventing the colonization of the cheese by pathobionts of animal or environmental origin. The core microbiota was focused on other biochemical processes, supporting its role in the development of both the health benefits and the pleasant gustatory nuances of goat cheese.

Farsi DN, Mathur H, Beresford T, Cotter PD. Cottage cheese, a relatively underexplored cultured dairy product with potential health benefits? Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2025;65(32):7953-7963. doi: 10.1080/10408398.2025.2487682.

Abstract. Cottage cheese (CC) is a member of the "fresh cheese" family of cheeses and is widely consumed due to its culinary versatility and some perceived health benefits. However, the evidence of direct health effects of CC is not well established. This review describes the production and nutritional characteristics of CC, before exploring the evidence of health effects from human intervention, in vitro, and in vivo models. Despite widespread consumption and advocated health benefits, there is a dearth of evidence pertaining to the health effects of CC from high-quality human randomized controlled trials. To date, a limited number of human intervention models with CC have explored nutrient bioavailability, metabolic health, and appetite regulation, in small, niche study populations. Findings with in vitro and in vivo models suggest that CC may be an efficacious vehicle for bioactive compounds. In conclusion, CC is a cultured dairy product that could impose a myriad of benefits across health outcomes including cardiometabolic, gastrointestinal, body composition, appetite regulation, and nutrient status. However, there is a need for high-quality human randomized controlled trials to develop a substantiated evidence base relating to the full potential of CC in human health.

Milani C, Longhi G, Alessandri G, Fontana F, Viglioli M, Tarracchini C, Mancabelli L, Lugli GA, Petraro S, Argentini C, Anzalone R, Viappiani A, Carli E, Vacondio F, van Sinderen D, Turroni F, Mor M, Ventura M. Functional modulation of the human gut microbiome by bacteria vehicled by cheese. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2025 Mar 19;91(3):e0018025. doi: 10.1128/aem.00180-25.

Abstract. Since cheese is one of the most commonly and globally consumed fermented foods, scientific investigations in recent decades have focused on determining the impact of this dairy product on human health and well-being. However, the modulatory effect exerted by the autochthonous cheese microbial community on the taxonomic composition and associated functional potential of the gut microbiota of human is still far from being fully dissected or understood. Here, through the use of an in vitro human gut-simulating cultivation model in combination with multi-omics approaches, we have shown that minor rather than dominant bacterial players of the cheese microbiota are responsible for gut microbiota modulation of cheese consumers. These include taxa from the genera Enterococcus, Bacillus, Clostridium, and Hafnia. Indeed, they contribute to expand the functional potential of the intestinal microbial ecosystem by introducing genes responsible for the production of metabolites with relevant biological activity, including genes involved in the synthesis of vitamins, short-chain fatty acids, and amino acids. Furthermore, tracing of cheese microbiota-associated bacterial strains in fecal samples from cheese consumers provided evidence of horizontal transmission events, enabling the detection of particular bacterial strains transferred from cheese to humans. Moreover, transcriptomic and metabolomic analyses of a horizontally transmitted (cheese-to-consumer) bacterial strain, i.e., Hafnia paralvei T10, cultivated in a human gut environment-simulating medium, confirmed the concept that cheese-derived bacteria may expand the functional arsenal of the consumer's gut microbiota. This highlights the functional and biologically relevant contributions of food microbes acquired through cheese consumption on the human health.IMPORTANCEDiet is universally recognized as the primary factor influencing and modulating the human intestinal microbiota both taxonomically and functionally. In this context, cheese, being a fermented food with its own microbiota, serves not only as a source of nourishment for humans, but also as a source of nutrients for the consumer's gut microbiota. Additionally, it may act as a vehicle for autochthonous food-associated microorganisms which undergo transfer from cheese to the consumer, potentially influencing host gut health. The current study highlights not only that cheese microbiota-associated bacteria can be traced in the human gut microbiota, but also that they may expand the functional repertoire of the human gut microbiota, with potentially significant implications for human health.

Kuhfeld RF, Eshpari H, Atamer Z, Dallas DC. A comprehensive database of cheese-derived bitter peptides and correlation to their physical properties. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2024;64(27):10105-10119. doi: 10.1080/10408398.2023.2220792. 

Abstract. Bitterness is a common flavor attribute of aged cheese associated with the peptide fraction, but excessive levels are a defect leading to consumer rejection. Bitterness in cheese has been primarily associated with peptides that arise from the breakdown of casein. The last review of bitter peptides was published in 1992. This updated review compiled information about the bitter peptides published up to 2022. Our comprehensive search of the literature compiled 226 peptides associated with bitterness and cheese protein origins into a database (Supplemental Materials). The influences of a peptide's physical properties, such as molecular weight, average hydrophobicity, peptide length, number of prolines and the presence of hydrophobic amino acids in the peptide's terminus, were assessed for correlation with bitterness threshold values this assessment found that, among variables considered, higher molecular weight had the strongest correlation with higher bitterness among known peptides. Heatmaps of bitter peptides and their bitterness threshold values highlight β-casein as the primary source of known bitter peptides in cheese. This comprehensive database of cheese protein-derived bitter peptides and this discovery of the correlation of a peptide's physical properties to bitterness will aid future researchers in the identification and discovery of contributors to cheese bitterness.

Nájera AI, Nieto S, Barron LJR, Albisu M. A Review of the Preservation of Hard and Semi-Hard Cheeses: Quality and Safety. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2021 Sep 17;18(18):9789. doi: 10.3390/ijerph18189789.

Abstract. Cheese is a dairy product with potential health benefits. Cheese consumption has increased due to the significant diversity of varieties, versatility of product presentation, and changes in consumers' lifestyles. Spoilage of hard and semi-hard cheeses can be promoted by their maturation period and/or by their long shelf-life. Therefore, preservation studies play a fundamental role in maintaining and/or increasing their shelf-life, and are of significant importance for the dairy sector. The aim of this review is to discuss the most effective methods to ensure the safety and sensory quality of ripened cheeses. We review traditional methods, such as freezing, and modern and innovative technologies, such as high hydrostatic pressures, chemical and natural vegetable origin preservatives, vacuum and modified atmosphere packaging, edible coatings and films, and other technologies applied at the end of storage and marketing stages, including light pulses and irradiation. For each technology, the main advantages and limitations for industrial application in the dairy sector are discussed. Each type of cheese requires a specific preservation treatment and optimal application conditions to ensure cheese quality and safety during storage. The environmental impact of the preservation technologies and their contribution to the sustainability of the food chain are discussed.

Gaglio R, Todaro M, Settanni L. Improvement of Raw Milk Cheese Hygiene through the Selection of Starter and Non-Starter Lactic Acid Bacteria: The Successful Case of PDO Pecorino Siciliano Cheese. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2021 Feb 13;18(4):1834. doi: 10.3390/ijerph18041834. 

Abstract. This review article focuses on the technological aspects and microbiological critical points of pressed-cooked cheeses processed from raw ewe's milk without the inoculation of starter cultures, in particular "Pecorino" cheese typology produced in Italy. After showing the composition of the biofilms adhering to the surface of the traditional dairy equipment (mainly wooden vat used to collect milk) and the microbiological characteristics of PDO Pecorino Siciliano cheese manufactured throughout Sicily, this cheese is taken as a case study to develop a strategy to improve its hygienic and safety characteristics. Basically, the natural lactic acid bacterial populations of fresh and ripened cheeses were characterized to select an autochthonous starter and non-starter cultures to stabilize the microbial community of PDO Pecorino Siciliano cheese. These bacteria were applied at a small scale level to prove their in situ efficacy, and finally introduced within the consortium for protection and promotion of this cheese to disseminate their performances to all dairy factories. The innovation in PDO Pecorino Siciliano cheese production was proven to be respectful of the traditional protocol, the final cheeses preserved their typicality, and the general cheese safety was improved. An overview of the future research prospects is also reported.