Parabens (Alkyl para-hydroxybenzoates): chemical, cosmetic, and environmental profile

Alkyl para-hydroxybenzoates are a class of chemicals belonging to the family of para-hydroxybenzoates (commonly called parabens), primarily used as preservatives in cosmetics, personal care products, foods, and pharmaceuticals. These esters of para-hydroxybenzoic acid (PHBA) are valued for their broad-spectrum antimicrobial efficacy, helping preserve products by protecting them from bacterial and fungal contamination.

1. Chemical identity and structure

• Generic INCI name: Alkylparaben

• Chemical class: Esters of para-hydroxybenzoic acid

• General structure:

  • Hydroxy group (-OH) in the para position on the benzene ring

  • Carboxyl group esterified with an alkyl chain (methyl, ethyl, propyl, butyl...)

• General formula: C₆H₄(OH)(COOR), where R = alkyl chain (methyl, ethyl, propyl, butyl, isobutyl, isopropyl)

Common examples

2. Physical properties and stability

• Appearance: white or colorless crystalline powders

• Solubility:

  • Moderately soluble in water

  • Highly soluble in alcohols, glycols, and vegetable oils

• Thermal stability: excellent up to 100 °C

• pH stability: effective across pH 4–8

• Compatibility: compatible with most cosmetic ingredients, including surfactants, emulsifiers, silicones, and fragrances

3. Antimicrobial profile

• Broad-spectrum bacteriostatic and fungistatic activity

• More effective against fungi and yeasts; moderate activity against Gram-positive bacteria

• Synergistic effects when combined in blends (e.g., methylparaben + propylparaben)

4. Cosmetic and industrial applications

Personal care

• Creams and lotions

• Shampoos and conditioners

• Liquid and solid soaps

• Make-up (foundation, mascara, eyeshadow)

• Deodorants

Pharmaceuticals

• Oral and topical solutions

• Ointments

• Syrups

Food

• Preservative additives (e.g., E218, E214), now regulated and limited in use

5. Safety and toxicology

• Parabens are preservative chemical compounds that have been the subject of attention in the scientific literature as possible endocrine disruptors (particularly propylparaben and butylparaben), i.e. with the possibility of damaging the hormone-producing glands in our bodies, particularly in the breasts. The 2004 study by Darbre et al. showed that parabens remain in our bodies as intact esters (2). Following this study, some of the scientific literature in 2005 and 2006 cast doubt on Darbre's conclusions and claimed they were limited. However, both the US FDA and the European SCCP authorised in 2006 the use of a single paraben in cosmetic products at a concentration of 0.4% and the use of total parabens at a concentration of 0.8%. However, there is no shortage of studies that consider the restrictions unnecessary: M. G. Kirchhof et al. in 2013 found that parabens are among the safest and most well-tolerated preservatives and that current data do not support drastic regulations or personal exposure restrictions. Darbre in 2014 published a further study in which he showed how parabens can cause DNA damage.

Typical cosmetic usage levels

Endocrine activity potential

• Some studies suggest weak estrogenic activity in vitro

• However, systemic bioavailability is very low, and major regulatory agencies (SCCS, FDA, Health Canada) do not consider parabens used in cosmetics at current levels a significant health risk

6. Regulatory status

7. Environmental impact

• Biodegradable → undergoes aerobic degradation in natural environments

• However, continuous release via wastewater treatment plants can result in localized bioaccumulation in sediments and aquatic fauna

• Traces of parabens have been detected in marine organisms and surface waters → ongoing environmental monitoring

• Low ecotoxicity risk at cosmetic-use concentrations

8. Alternatives and market trends

Driven by green marketing demands and evolving eco-regulatory pressures, the cosmetics industry is exploring alternatives to parabens such as:

• Sodium benzoate

• Dehydroacetic acid

• Botanical antimicrobial extracts

• Multi-component "green" preservative systems

However, few alternatives match the broad-spectrum efficacy and robustness of parabens, which is why they remain widely used in conventional cosmetics.

References__________________________________________________________________________

Darbre, P. D., & Harvey, P. W. (2014). Parabens can enable hallmarks and characteristics of cancer in human breast epithelial cells: a review of the literature with reference to new exposure data and regulatory status. Journal of Applied Toxicology, 34(9), 925-938.

Abstract. A framework for understanding the complexity of cancer development was established by Hanahan and Weinberg in their definition of the hallmarks of cancer. In this review, we consider the evidence that parabens can enable development in human breast epithelial cells of four of six of the basic hallmarks, one of two of the emerging hallmarks and one of two of the enabling characteristics. In Hallmark 1, parabens have been measured as present in 99% of human breast tissue samples, possess oestrogenic activity and can stimulate sustained proliferation of human breast cancer cells at concentrations measurable in the breast. In Hallmark 2, parabens can inhibit the suppression of breast cancer cell growth by hydroxytamoxifen, and through binding to the oestrogen-related receptor gamma may prevent its deactivation by growth inhibitors. In Hallmark 3, in the 10 nm–1 μm range, parabens give a dose-dependent evasion of apoptosis in high-risk donor breast epithelial cells. In Hallmark 4, long-term exposure (>20 weeks) to parabens leads to increased migratory and invasive activity in human breast cancer cells, properties that are linked to the metastatic process. As an emerging hallmark methylparaben has been shown in human breast epithelial cells to increase mTOR, a key regulator of energy metabolism. As an enabling characteristic parabens can cause DNA damage at high concentrations in the short term but more work is needed to investigate long-term, low-dose mixtures. The ability of parabens to enable multiple cancer hallmarks in human breast epithelial cells provides grounds for regulatory review of the implications of the presence of parabens in human breast tissue. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Hager E, Chen J, Zhao L. Minireview: Parabens Exposure and Breast Cancer. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2022 Feb 8;19(3):1873. doi: 10.3390/ijerph19031873. 

Abstract. There is increasing recognition that environmental exposure to chemicals, such as endocrine-disruptive chemicals (EDCs), contributes to the development of breast cancer. Parabens are a group of EDCs commonly found in personal care products, foods, and pharmaceuticals. Systemic exposure to parabens has been confirmed by the ubiquitous detection of parabens in human blood and urine samples. Although evidence from in vivo and epidemiological studies linking parabens exposure to breast cancer is limited, the current evidence suggests that parabens may negatively interfere with some endocrine and intracrine targets relevant to breast carcinogenesis. So far, most studies have focused on a single paraben's effects and the direct modulating effects on estrogen receptors or the androgen receptor in vitro. Recent studies have revealed that parabens can modulate local estrogen-converting enzymes, 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase 1 and 2 and increase local estrogen levels. Also, parabens can crosstalk with the human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) pathway and work with ER signaling to increase pro-oncogenic c-Myc expression in ER+/HER2+ breast cancer cells. Future studies investigating paraben mixtures and their crosstalk with other EDCs or signaling pathways both in vitro and in vivo in the context of breast cancer development are warranted.

Petric Z, Ružić J, Žuntar I. The controversies of parabens - an overview nowadays. Acta Pharm. 2021 Mar 1;71(1):17-32. doi: 10.2478/acph-2021-0001.

Abstract. Effects of paraben toxicity, i.e., endocrine-disruption properties, are in the focus of researchers for decades, but still - they are a hot subject of debate. Parabens are aliphatic esters of p-hydroxybenzoic acid, which are widely used as antimicrobial agents for the preservation of cosmetics, pharmaceuticals and foods. Mostly used parabens are methyl-, ethyl-, propyl- and butylparaben. Although the toxicity of parabens is reported in animals and in in vitro studies, it cannot be taken for granted when discussing hazards for human health due to an unrealistic exposure -safety profile. Many studies have demonstrated that parabens are non-teratogenic, non-mutagenic, non-carcinogenic and the real evidence for their toxicity in humans has not been established. For now, methyl-, ethyl- and propylparaben are considered safe for use in cosmetics and pharmaceuticals within the recommended range of doses. Regarding alternatives for parabens, a variety of approaches have been proposed, but every substitute would need to be tested rigorously for toxicity and safety.

Byford JR, Shaw LE, Drew MG, Pope GS, Sauer MJ, Darbre PD. Oestrogenic activity of parabens in MCF7 human breast cancer cells. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 2002 Jan;80(1):49-60. doi: 10.1016/s0960-

Abstract. Parabens (4-hydroxybenzoic acid esters) have been recently reported to have oestrogenic activity in yeast cells and animal models. Since the human population is exposed to parabens through their widespread use as preservatives in foods, pharmaceuticals and cosmetics, we have investigated here whether oestrogenic activity of these compounds can also be detected in oestrogen-sensitive human cells. We report on the oestrogenic effects of four parabens (methylparaben, ethylparaben, n-propylparaben, n-butylparaben) in oestrogen-dependent MCF7 human breast cancer cells. Competitive inhibition of [3H]oestradiol binding to MCF7 cell oestrogen receptors could be detected at 1,000,000-fold molar excess of n-butylparaben (86%), n-propylparaben (77%), ethyl-paraben (54%) and methylparaben (21%). At concentrations of 10(-6)M and above, parabens were are able to increase expression of both transfected (ERE-CAT reporter gene) and endogenous (pS2) oestrogen-regulated genes in these cells. They could also increase proliferation of the cells in monolayer culture, which could be inhibited by the antiestrogen ICI 182,780, indicating that the effects were mediated through the oestrogen receptor. However, no antagonist activity of parabens could be detected on regulation of cell proliferation by 17 beta-oestradiol at 10(-10)M. Molecular modelling has indicated the mode by which paraben molecules can bind into the ligand binding pocket of the crystal structure of the ligand binding domain (LBD) of the oestrogen receptor alpha (ERalpha) in place of 17beta-oestradiol; it has furthermore shown that two paraben molecules can bind simultaneously in a mode in which their phenolic hydroxyl groups bind similarly to those of the meso-hexoestrol molecule. Future work will need to address the extent to which parabens can accumulate in hormonally sensitive tissues and also the extent to which their weak oestrogenic activity can add to the more general environmental oestrogen problem.

Darbre PD, Aljarrah A, Miller WR, Coldham NG, Sauer MJ, Pope GS. Concentrations of parabens in human breast tumours. J Appl Toxicol. 2004 Jan-Feb;24(1):5-13. doi: 10.1002/jat.958. PMID: 14745841.

Nowak K, Ratajczak-Wrona W, Górska M, Jabłońska E. Parabens and their effects on the endocrine system. Mol Cell Endocrinol. 2018 Oct 15;474:238-251. doi: 10.1016/j.mce.2018.03.014. Epub 2018 Mar 27. PMID: 29596967.

Wei F, Mortimer M, Cheng H, Sang N, Guo LH. Parabens as chemicals of emerging concern in the environment and humans: A review. Sci Total Environ. 2021 Jul 15;778:146150. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.146150. Epub 2021 Feb 27. PMID: 34030374.

Charles AK, Darbre PD. Combinations of parabens at concentrations measured in human breast tissue can increase proliferation of MCF-7 human breast cancer cells. J Appl Toxicol. 2013 May;33(5):390-8. doi: 10.1002/jat.2850. Epub 2013 Jan 31. PMID: 23364952

Darbre PD, Harvey PW. Paraben esters: review of recent studies of endocrine toxicity, absorption, esterase and human exposure, and discussion of potential human health risks. J Appl Toxicol. 2008 Jul;28(5):561-78. doi: 10.1002/jat.1358. PMID: 18484575.

Alkyl para-hydroxybenzoates: chemical, cosmetic, and environmental profile

Alkyl para-hydroxybenzoates are a class of chemicals belonging to the family of para-hydroxybenzoates (commonly called parabens), primarily used as preservatives in cosmetics, personal care products, foods, and pharmaceuticals. These esters of para-hydroxybenzoic acid (PHBA) are valued for their broad-spectrum antimicrobial efficacy, helping preserve products by protecting them from bacterial and fungal contamination.

1. Chemical identity and structure

• Generic INCI name: Alkylparaben

• Chemical class: Esters of para-hydroxybenzoic acid

• General structure:

  • Hydroxy group (-OH) in the para position on the benzene ring

  • Carboxyl group esterified with an alkyl chain (methyl, ethyl, propyl, butyl...)

• General formula: C₆H₄(OH)(COOR), where R = alkyl chain (methyl, ethyl, propyl, butyl, isobutyl, isopropyl)

Common examples

2. Physical properties and stability

• Appearance: white or colorless crystalline powders

• Solubility:

  • Moderately soluble in water

  • Highly soluble in alcohols, glycols, and vegetable oils

• Thermal stability: excellent up to 100 °C

• pH stability: effective across pH 4–8

• Compatibility: compatible with most cosmetic ingredients, including surfactants, emulsifiers, silicones, and fragrances

3. Antimicrobial profile

• Broad-spectrum bacteriostatic and fungistatic activity

• More effective against fungi and yeasts; moderate activity against Gram-positive bacteria

• Synergistic effects when combined in blends (e.g., methylparaben + propylparaben)

4. Cosmetic and industrial applications

Personal care

• Creams and lotions

• Shampoos and conditioners

• Liquid and solid soaps

• Make-up (foundation, mascara, eyeshadow)

• Deodorants

Pharmaceuticals

• Oral and topical solutions

• Ointments

• Syrups

Food

• Preservative additives (e.g., E218, E214), now regulated and limited in use

5. Safety and toxicology

• Parabens are preservative chemical compounds that have been the subject of attention in the scientific literature as possible endocrine disruptors (particularly propylparaben and butylparaben), i.e. with the possibility of damaging the hormone-producing glands in our bodies, particularly in the breasts. The 2004 study by Darbre et al. showed that parabens remain in our bodies as intact esters (2). Following this study, some of the scientific literature in 2005 and 2006 cast doubt on Darbre's conclusions and claimed they were limited. However, both the US FDA and the European SCCP authorised in 2006 the use of a single paraben in cosmetic products at a concentration of 0.4% and the use of total parabens at a concentration of 0.8%. However, there is no shortage of studies that consider the restrictions unnecessary: M. G. Kirchhof et al. in 2013 found that parabens are among the safest and most well-tolerated preservatives and that current data do not support drastic regulations or personal exposure restrictions. Darbre in 2014 published a further study in which he showed how parabens can cause DNA damage.

Typical cosmetic usage levels

Endocrine activity potential

• Some studies suggest weak estrogenic activity in vitro

• However, systemic bioavailability is very low, and major regulatory agencies (SCCS, FDA, Health Canada) do not consider parabens used in cosmetics at current levels a significant health risk

6. Regulatory status

7. Environmental impact

• Biodegradable → undergoes aerobic degradation in natural environments

• However, continuous release via wastewater treatment plants can result in localized bioaccumulation in sediments and aquatic fauna

• Traces of parabens have been detected in marine organisms and surface waters → ongoing environmental monitoring

• Low ecotoxicity risk at cosmetic-use concentrations

8. Alternatives and market trends

Driven by green marketing demands and evolving eco-regulatory pressures, the cosmetics industry is exploring alternatives to parabens such as:

• Sodium benzoate

• Dehydroacetic acid

• Botanical antimicrobial extracts

• Multi-component "green" preservative systems

However, few alternatives match the broad-spectrum efficacy and robustness of parabens, which is why they remain widely used in conventional cosmetics.

References__________________________________________________________________________

Darbre, P. D., & Harvey, P. W. (2014). Parabens can enable hallmarks and characteristics of cancer in human breast epithelial cells: a review of the literature with reference to new exposure data and regulatory status. Journal of Applied Toxicology, 34(9), 925-938.

Abstract. A framework for understanding the complexity of cancer development was established by Hanahan and Weinberg in their definition of the hallmarks of cancer. In this review, we consider the evidence that parabens can enable development in human breast epithelial cells of four of six of the basic hallmarks, one of two of the emerging hallmarks and one of two of the enabling characteristics. In Hallmark 1, parabens have been measured as present in 99% of human breast tissue samples, possess oestrogenic activity and can stimulate sustained proliferation of human breast cancer cells at concentrations measurable in the breast. In Hallmark 2, parabens can inhibit the suppression of breast cancer cell growth by hydroxytamoxifen, and through binding to the oestrogen-related receptor gamma may prevent its deactivation by growth inhibitors. In Hallmark 3, in the 10 nm–1 μm range, parabens give a dose-dependent evasion of apoptosis in high-risk donor breast epithelial cells. In Hallmark 4, long-term exposure (>20 weeks) to parabens leads to increased migratory and invasive activity in human breast cancer cells, properties that are linked to the metastatic process. As an emerging hallmark methylparaben has been shown in human breast epithelial cells to increase mTOR, a key regulator of energy metabolism. As an enabling characteristic parabens can cause DNA damage at high concentrations in the short term but more work is needed to investigate long-term, low-dose mixtures. The ability of parabens to enable multiple cancer hallmarks in human breast epithelial cells provides grounds for regulatory review of the implications of the presence of parabens in human breast tissue. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Hager E, Chen J, Zhao L. Minireview: Parabens Exposure and Breast Cancer. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2022 Feb 8;19(3):1873. doi: 10.3390/ijerph19031873. 

Abstract. There is increasing recognition that environmental exposure to chemicals, such as endocrine-disruptive chemicals (EDCs), contributes to the development of breast cancer. Parabens are a group of EDCs commonly found in personal care products, foods, and pharmaceuticals. Systemic exposure to parabens has been confirmed by the ubiquitous detection of parabens in human blood and urine samples. Although evidence from in vivo and epidemiological studies linking parabens exposure to breast cancer is limited, the current evidence suggests that parabens may negatively interfere with some endocrine and intracrine targets relevant to breast carcinogenesis. So far, most studies have focused on a single paraben's effects and the direct modulating effects on estrogen receptors or the androgen receptor in vitro. Recent studies have revealed that parabens can modulate local estrogen-converting enzymes, 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase 1 and 2 and increase local estrogen levels. Also, parabens can crosstalk with the human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) pathway and work with ER signaling to increase pro-oncogenic c-Myc expression in ER+/HER2+ breast cancer cells. Future studies investigating paraben mixtures and their crosstalk with other EDCs or signaling pathways both in vitro and in vivo in the context of breast cancer development are warranted.

Petric Z, Ružić J, Žuntar I. The controversies of parabens - an overview nowadays. Acta Pharm. 2021 Mar 1;71(1):17-32. doi: 10.2478/acph-2021-0001.

Abstract. Effects of paraben toxicity, i.e., endocrine-disruption properties, are in the focus of researchers for decades, but still - they are a hot subject of debate. Parabens are aliphatic esters of p-hydroxybenzoic acid, which are widely used as antimicrobial agents for the preservation of cosmetics, pharmaceuticals and foods. Mostly used parabens are methyl-, ethyl-, propyl- and butylparaben. Although the toxicity of parabens is reported in animals and in in vitro studies, it cannot be taken for granted when discussing hazards for human health due to an unrealistic exposure -safety profile. Many studies have demonstrated that parabens are non-teratogenic, non-mutagenic, non-carcinogenic and the real evidence for their toxicity in humans has not been established. For now, methyl-, ethyl- and propylparaben are considered safe for use in cosmetics and pharmaceuticals within the recommended range of doses. Regarding alternatives for parabens, a variety of approaches have been proposed, but every substitute would need to be tested rigorously for toxicity and safety.

Byford JR, Shaw LE, Drew MG, Pope GS, Sauer MJ, Darbre PD. Oestrogenic activity of parabens in MCF7 human breast cancer cells. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 2002 Jan;80(1):49-60. doi: 10.1016/s0960-

Abstract. Parabens (4-hydroxybenzoic acid esters) have been recently reported to have oestrogenic activity in yeast cells and animal models. Since the human population is exposed to parabens through their widespread use as preservatives in foods, pharmaceuticals and cosmetics, we have investigated here whether oestrogenic activity of these compounds can also be detected in oestrogen-sensitive human cells. We report on the oestrogenic effects of four parabens (methylparaben, ethylparaben, n-propylparaben, n-butylparaben) in oestrogen-dependent MCF7 human breast cancer cells. Competitive inhibition of [3H]oestradiol binding to MCF7 cell oestrogen receptors could be detected at 1,000,000-fold molar excess of n-butylparaben (86%), n-propylparaben (77%), ethyl-paraben (54%) and methylparaben (21%). At concentrations of 10(-6)M and above, parabens were are able to increase expression of both transfected (ERE-CAT reporter gene) and endogenous (pS2) oestrogen-regulated genes in these cells. They could also increase proliferation of the cells in monolayer culture, which could be inhibited by the antiestrogen ICI 182,780, indicating that the effects were mediated through the oestrogen receptor. However, no antagonist activity of parabens could be detected on regulation of cell proliferation by 17 beta-oestradiol at 10(-10)M. Molecular modelling has indicated the mode by which paraben molecules can bind into the ligand binding pocket of the crystal structure of the ligand binding domain (LBD) of the oestrogen receptor alpha (ERalpha) in place of 17beta-oestradiol; it has furthermore shown that two paraben molecules can bind simultaneously in a mode in which their phenolic hydroxyl groups bind similarly to those of the meso-hexoestrol molecule. Future work will need to address the extent to which parabens can accumulate in hormonally sensitive tissues and also the extent to which their weak oestrogenic activity can add to the more general environmental oestrogen problem.

Darbre PD, Aljarrah A, Miller WR, Coldham NG, Sauer MJ, Pope GS. Concentrations of parabens in human breast tumours. J Appl Toxicol. 2004 Jan-Feb;24(1):5-13. doi: 10.1002/jat.958. PMID: 14745841.

Nowak K, Ratajczak-Wrona W, Górska M, Jabłońska E. Parabens and their effects on the endocrine system. Mol Cell Endocrinol. 2018 Oct 15;474:238-251. doi: 10.1016/j.mce.2018.03.014. Epub 2018 Mar 27. PMID: 29596967.

Wei F, Mortimer M, Cheng H, Sang N, Guo LH. Parabens as chemicals of emerging concern in the environment and humans: A review. Sci Total Environ. 2021 Jul 15;778:146150. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.146150. Epub 2021 Feb 27. PMID: 34030374.

Charles AK, Darbre PD. Combinations of parabens at concentrations measured in human breast tissue can increase proliferation of MCF-7 human breast cancer cells. J Appl Toxicol. 2013 May;33(5):390-8. doi: 10.1002/jat.2850. Epub 2013 Jan 31. PMID: 23364952

Darbre PD, Harvey PW. Paraben esters: review of recent studies of endocrine toxicity, absorption, esterase and human exposure, and discussion of potential human health risks. J Appl Toxicol. 2008 Jul;28(5):561-78. doi: 10.1002/jat.1358. PMID: 18484575.

Aniba Rosodora (Rosewood) Wood Oil is an essential oil extracted from the wood of the Rosewood tree (Aniba rosodora or Aniba Roseodora), a member of the Lauraceae family. Known for its rich, sweet, and woody fragrance, this oil is highly valued in the perfume industry and is used in various cosmetic and personal care products for its aromatic and therapeutic properties. It is renowned for its calming and balancing effects on both the skin and the mind.

Chemical Composition and Structure: Aniba Rosodora (Rosewood) Wood Oil contains a complex blend of volatile compounds that contribute to its distinctive scent and benefits. Key components include:

• Linalool: A major component, known for its pleasant floral and woody scent, and its potential calming and anti-inflammatory effects.
• Limonene: Adds a fresh, citrusy note to the oil and has antioxidant properties.
• Alpha-Pinene: Provides a pine-like aroma and has potential antimicrobial benefits.
• Other Terpenes: Includes a variety of other terpenes that contribute to the oil's overall fragrance and properties.

Physical Properties:

• Appearance: Typically a pale yellow to amber liquid.
• Odor: Characterized by a warm, woody, and sweet fragrance with subtle floral notes.
• Solubility: Soluble in alcohol and oils, but not in water.
• Density: Varies slightly depending on the exact composition, but generally around 0.880 to 0.910 g/cm³.
• Refractive Index: Typically ranges from 1.505 to 1.515.

Production Process:

1. Harvesting: The Rosewood trees are harvested sustainably to prevent overexploitation and ensure the longevity of the species.
2. Extraction: The oil is obtained through steam distillation of the wood chips or sawdust from the Rosewood tree.
3. Purification: The extracted oil is purified to remove impurities and concentrate the beneficial compounds.
4. Formulation: The purified Aniba Rosodora Wood Oil is incorporated into a range of cosmetic and personal care products.

Applications:

• Fragrances: Widely used in perfumes and colognes for its warm, sweet, and woody scent.
• Skincare: Included in creams, serums, and lotions for its potential calming and balancing effects on the skin.
• Aromatherapy: Utilized in diffusers and aromatherapy products for its soothing and uplifting properties.
• Haircare: Added to shampoos and conditioners for its pleasant fragrance and potential conditioning benefits.

Cosmetics - INCI Functions:

Cosmetic astringent. This ingredient exerts a direct effect on the skin by tightening dilated pores by contracting stratum corneum cells and removing superfluous oil.

Fragrance. It plays a very important role in the formulation of cosmetic products as it provides the possibility of enhancing, masking or adding fragrance to the final product, increasing its marketability. It is able to create a perceptible pleasant odour, masking a bad smell. The consumer always expects to find a pleasant or distinctive scent in a cosmetic product.

Skin conditioning agent. It is the mainstay of topical skin treatment as it has the function of restoring, increasing or improving skin tolerance to external factors, including melanocyte tolerance. The most important function of the conditioning agent is to prevent skin dehydration, but the subject is rather complex and involves emollients and humectants that can be added in the formulation.

CAS    8015-77-8

Environmental and Safety Considerations:

• Environmental Impact: Sustainable harvesting practices are crucial to prevent deforestation and ensure the conservation of Rosewood trees. Certified sources and eco-friendly practices are recommended.
• Safety: Aniba Rosodora (Rosewood) Wood Oil is generally considered safe for use in cosmetics and personal care products when used as directed. It is non-irritating at recommended concentrations. However, individuals with sensitive skin or allergies should be cautious. Avoid direct contact with the eyes and mucous membranes.

P.S.

Aniba rosaeodora and Aniba rosodora are actually the same species of tree, commonly known as rosewood. The confusion between the two names often arises from different sources and taxonomic updates. Here’s a breakdown:

1. Aniba rosaeodora: This is the currently accepted scientific name for the species. It is used in modern botanical and taxonomic references.

2. Aniba rosodora: This name is an older or alternate spelling that has been used in some sources. It is not the correct name according to current taxonomic standards.

Pentapeptide-84 is a chemical compound, a class of biomolecules in abbreviated form, a synthetic protein composed of five amino acids linked together: arginine, aspartic acid, lysine, tyrosine and valine

The name describes the structure of the molecule:

• Pentapeptide  indicates that the molecule is composed of five amino acids linked together.
• 84 - The numeral represents a specific sequence or variant of the pentapeptide, indicating its unique identification or the particular modification in its sequence compared to other similar peptides.

What it is used for and where

Pentapeptide-84 is used in cosmetic formulations for its antioxidant and protective properties. This peptide is effective at combating free radicals and protecting the skin from damage caused by pollution and UV rays. It is particularly suitable for products aimed at preserving skin youthfulness and enhancing its resilience, such as creams, serums, and specific facial treatments aimed at strengthening the skin barrier and maintaining a healthy appearance.

Cosmetics - INCI Functions

• Skin conditioning agent. It is the mainstay of topical skin treatment as it has the function of restoring, increasing or improving skin tolerance to external factors, including melanocyte tolerance. The most important function of the conditioning agent is to prevent skin dehydration, but the subject is rather complex and involves emollients and humectants that can be added in the formulation.

Synthetic peptides can be generated as copies of protein fragments by incorporating non-proteinogenic amino acids and modifications to enhance the proteolytic stability of the molecules. Peptides are used in the development of therapeutic drugs (1) for their antimicrobial activity (2), and their bioactive interest (3).

The industrial production process of peptides can be divided into several key phases.

• Peptide Synthesis. This phase involves the chemical or biotechnological synthesis of the desired peptides. Chemical synthesis involves building the peptide one step at a time, using protection and deprotection of functional groups to control the reactivity of the amino acid residues. Biotechnological synthesis, on the other hand, may involve the use of microorganisms or cultured cells to produce peptides through gene expression.
• Isolation and Purification. After synthesis, peptides need to be isolated and purified from contaminants and reaction intermediates. This can be done using separation techniques such as chromatography.
• Characterization. Once purified, peptides need to be characterized to determine their identity, purity, and biological activity. This can be done using analytical techniques such as mass spectrometry and chromatography.
• Formulation and Stability. Finally, peptides can be formulated into pharmaceutical or cosmetic preparations and tested for their stability and safety.

References_____________________________________________________________________

(1) Yuan Y. Mechanisms Inspired Targeting Peptides. Adv Exp Med Biol. 2020;1248:531-546. doi: 10.1007/978-981-15-3266-5_21. 

Abstract. Peptides, as a large group of molecules, are composed of amino acid residues and can be divided into linear or cyclic peptides according to the structure. Over 13,000 molecules of natural peptides have been found and many of them have been well studied. In artificial peptide libraries, the number of peptide diversity could be up to 1 × 1013. Peptides have more complex structures and higher affinity to target proteins comparing with small molecular compounds. Recently, the development of targeting cancer immune checkpoint (CIP) inhibitors is having a very important role in tumor therapy. Peptides targeting ligands or receptors in CIP have been designed based on three-dimensional structures of target proteins or directly selected by random peptide libraries in biological display systems. Most of these targeting peptides work as inhibitors of protein-protein interaction and improve CD8+ cytotoxic T-lymphocyte (CTL) activation in the tumor microenvironment, for example, PKHB1, Ar5Y4 and TPP1. Peptides could be designed to regulate CIP protein degradation in vivo, such as PD-LYSO and PD-PALM. Besides its use in developing therapeutic drugs for targeting CIP, targeting peptides could be used in drug's targeted delivery and diagnosis in tumor immune therapy.

(2) Bin Hafeez A, Jiang X, Bergen PJ, Zhu Y. Antimicrobial Peptides: An Update on Classifications and Databases. Int J Mol Sci. 2021 Oct 28;22(21):11691. doi: 10.3390/ijms222111691. 

Abstract. Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are distributed across all kingdoms of life and are an indispensable component of host defenses. They consist of predominantly short cationic peptides with a wide variety of structures and targets. Given the ever-emerging resistance of various pathogens to existing antimicrobial therapies, AMPs have recently attracted extensive interest as potential therapeutic agents. As the discovery of new AMPs has increased, many databases specializing in AMPs have been developed to collect both fundamental and pharmacological information. In this review, we summarize the sources, structures, modes of action, and classifications of AMPs. Additionally, we examine current AMP databases, compare valuable computational tools used to predict antimicrobial activity and mechanisms of action, and highlight new machine learning approaches that can be employed to improve AMP activity to combat global antimicrobial resistance.

(3) O'Connor J, Garcia-Vaquero M, Meaney S, Tiwari BK. Bioactive Peptides from Algae: Traditional and Novel Generation Strategies, Structure-Function Relationships, and Bioinformatics as Predictive Tools for Bioactivity. Mar Drugs. 2022 May 10;20(5):317. doi: 10.3390/md20050317. 

Abstract. Over the last decade, algae have been explored as alternative and sustainable protein sources for a balanced diet and more recently, as a potential source of algal-derived bioactive peptides with potential health benefits. This review will focus on the emerging processes for the generation and isolation of bioactive peptides or cryptides from algae, including: (1) pre-treatments of algae for the extraction of protein by physical and biochemical methods; and (2) methods for the generation of bioactive including enzymatic hydrolysis and other emerging methods. To date, the main biological properties of the peptides identified from algae, including anti-hypertensive, antioxidant and anti-proliferative/cytotoxic effects (for this review, anti-proliferative/cytotoxic will be referred to by the term anti-cancer), assayed in vitro and/or in vivo, will also be summarized emphasizing the structure-function relationship and mechanism of action of these peptides. Moreover, the use of in silico methods, such as quantitative structural activity relationships (QSAR) and molecular docking for the identification of specific peptides of bioactive interest from hydrolysates will be described in detail together with the main challenges and opportunities to exploit algae as a source of bioactive peptides.

Pentapeptide-83 is a chemical compound, a class of biomolecules in abbreviated form, a synthetic protein composed of five amino acids linked together among which: alanine, lysine and proline.

The name describes the structure of the molecule:

• Pentapeptide  indicates that the molecule is composed of five amino acids linked together.
• 83 - The numeral represents a specific sequence or variant of the pentapeptide, indicating its unique identification or the particular modification in its sequence compared to other similar peptides.

What it is used for and where

Pentapeptide-83 is used in cosmetic formulations for its properties in improving skin hydration and barrier function. This peptide is effective in strengthening the skin's barrier, enhancing its ability to retain moisture, and protecting it from external stressors. It is particularly suitable for products aimed at caring for dry and sensitive skin, such as moisturizing creams, protective lotions, and facial masks aimed at nourishing and protecting the skin.

Cosmetics - INCI Functions

• Skin conditioning agent. It is the mainstay of topical skin treatment as it has the function of restoring, increasing or improving skin tolerance to external factors, including melanocyte tolerance. The most important function of the conditioning agent is to prevent skin dehydration, but the subject is rather complex and involves emollients and humectants that can be added in the formulation.

Synthetic peptides can be generated as copies of protein fragments by incorporating non-proteinogenic amino acids and modifications to enhance the proteolytic stability of the molecules. Peptides are used in the development of therapeutic drugs (1) for their antimicrobial activity (2), and their bioactive interest (3).

The industrial production process of peptides can be divided into several key phases.

• Peptide Synthesis. This phase involves the chemical or biotechnological synthesis of the desired peptides. Chemical synthesis involves building the peptide one step at a time, using protection and deprotection of functional groups to control the reactivity of the amino acid residues. Biotechnological synthesis, on the other hand, may involve the use of microorganisms or cultured cells to produce peptides through gene expression.
• Isolation and Purification. After synthesis, peptides need to be isolated and purified from contaminants and reaction intermediates. This can be done using separation techniques such as chromatography.
• Characterization. Once purified, peptides need to be characterized to determine their identity, purity, and biological activity. This can be done using analytical techniques such as mass spectrometry and chromatography.
• Formulation and Stability. Finally, peptides can be formulated into pharmaceutical or cosmetic preparations and tested for their stability and safety.

References_____________________________________________________________________

(1) Yuan Y. Mechanisms Inspired Targeting Peptides. Adv Exp Med Biol. 2020;1248:531-546. doi: 10.1007/978-981-15-3266-5_21. 

Abstract. Peptides, as a large group of molecules, are composed of amino acid residues and can be divided into linear or cyclic peptides according to the structure. Over 13,000 molecules of natural peptides have been found and many of them have been well studied. In artificial peptide libraries, the number of peptide diversity could be up to 1 × 1013. Peptides have more complex structures and higher affinity to target proteins comparing with small molecular compounds. Recently, the development of targeting cancer immune checkpoint (CIP) inhibitors is having a very important role in tumor therapy. Peptides targeting ligands or receptors in CIP have been designed based on three-dimensional structures of target proteins or directly selected by random peptide libraries in biological display systems. Most of these targeting peptides work as inhibitors of protein-protein interaction and improve CD8+ cytotoxic T-lymphocyte (CTL) activation in the tumor microenvironment, for example, PKHB1, Ar5Y4 and TPP1. Peptides could be designed to regulate CIP protein degradation in vivo, such as PD-LYSO and PD-PALM. Besides its use in developing therapeutic drugs for targeting CIP, targeting peptides could be used in drug's targeted delivery and diagnosis in tumor immune therapy.

(2) Bin Hafeez A, Jiang X, Bergen PJ, Zhu Y. Antimicrobial Peptides: An Update on Classifications and Databases. Int J Mol Sci. 2021 Oct 28;22(21):11691. doi: 10.3390/ijms222111691. 

Abstract. Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are distributed across all kingdoms of life and are an indispensable component of host defenses. They consist of predominantly short cationic peptides with a wide variety of structures and targets. Given the ever-emerging resistance of various pathogens to existing antimicrobial therapies, AMPs have recently attracted extensive interest as potential therapeutic agents. As the discovery of new AMPs has increased, many databases specializing in AMPs have been developed to collect both fundamental and pharmacological information. In this review, we summarize the sources, structures, modes of action, and classifications of AMPs. Additionally, we examine current AMP databases, compare valuable computational tools used to predict antimicrobial activity and mechanisms of action, and highlight new machine learning approaches that can be employed to improve AMP activity to combat global antimicrobial resistance.

(3) O'Connor J, Garcia-Vaquero M, Meaney S, Tiwari BK. Bioactive Peptides from Algae: Traditional and Novel Generation Strategies, Structure-Function Relationships, and Bioinformatics as Predictive Tools for Bioactivity. Mar Drugs. 2022 May 10;20(5):317. doi: 10.3390/md20050317. 

Abstract. Over the last decade, algae have been explored as alternative and sustainable protein sources for a balanced diet and more recently, as a potential source of algal-derived bioactive peptides with potential health benefits. This review will focus on the emerging processes for the generation and isolation of bioactive peptides or cryptides from algae, including: (1) pre-treatments of algae for the extraction of protein by physical and biochemical methods; and (2) methods for the generation of bioactive including enzymatic hydrolysis and other emerging methods. To date, the main biological properties of the peptides identified from algae, including anti-hypertensive, antioxidant and anti-proliferative/cytotoxic effects (for this review, anti-proliferative/cytotoxic will be referred to by the term anti-cancer), assayed in vitro and/or in vivo, will also be summarized emphasizing the structure-function relationship and mechanism of action of these peptides. Moreover, the use of in silico methods, such as quantitative structural activity relationships (QSAR) and molecular docking for the identification of specific peptides of bioactive interest from hydrolysates will be described in detail together with the main challenges and opportunities to exploit algae as a source of bioactive peptides.

Pentapeptide-82 is a chemical compound, a class of biomolecules in abbreviated form, a synthetic protein composed of five amino acids linked together among which: glycine, proline and valine.

The name describes the structure of the molecule:

• Pentapeptide  indicates that the molecule is composed of five amino acids linked together.
• 82 - The numeral represents a specific sequence or variant of the pentapeptide, indicating its unique identification or the particular modification in its sequence compared to other similar peptides.

What it is used for and where

Pentapeptide-82 is used in cosmetic formulations for its properties in stimulating hair growth. This peptide is effective in improving scalp health and promoting faster, thicker hair growth, making it ideal for products aimed at hair care and hair loss prevention. 

Cosmetics - INCI Functions

• Skin conditioning agent - Miscellaneous.  This ingredient has the task of modifying and improving the condition of the skin when it is damaged or dry, reducing flaking and restoring its elasticity.

Synthetic peptides can be generated as copies of protein fragments by incorporating non-proteinogenic amino acids and modifications to enhance the proteolytic stability of the molecules. Peptides are used in the development of therapeutic drugs (1) for their antimicrobial activity (2), and their bioactive interest (3).

The industrial production process of peptides can be divided into several key phases.

• Peptide Synthesis. This phase involves the chemical or biotechnological synthesis of the desired peptides. Chemical synthesis involves building the peptide one step at a time, using protection and deprotection of functional groups to control the reactivity of the amino acid residues. Biotechnological synthesis, on the other hand, may involve the use of microorganisms or cultured cells to produce peptides through gene expression.
• Isolation and Purification. After synthesis, peptides need to be isolated and purified from contaminants and reaction intermediates. This can be done using separation techniques such as chromatography.
• Characterization. Once purified, peptides need to be characterized to determine their identity, purity, and biological activity. This can be done using analytical techniques such as mass spectrometry and chromatography.
• Formulation and Stability. Finally, peptides can be formulated into pharmaceutical or cosmetic preparations and tested for their stability and safety.

References_____________________________________________________________________

(1) Yuan Y. Mechanisms Inspired Targeting Peptides. Adv Exp Med Biol. 2020;1248:531-546. doi: 10.1007/978-981-15-3266-5_21. 

Abstract. Peptides, as a large group of molecules, are composed of amino acid residues and can be divided into linear or cyclic peptides according to the structure. Over 13,000 molecules of natural peptides have been found and many of them have been well studied. In artificial peptide libraries, the number of peptide diversity could be up to 1 × 1013. Peptides have more complex structures and higher affinity to target proteins comparing with small molecular compounds. Recently, the development of targeting cancer immune checkpoint (CIP) inhibitors is having a very important role in tumor therapy. Peptides targeting ligands or receptors in CIP have been designed based on three-dimensional structures of target proteins or directly selected by random peptide libraries in biological display systems. Most of these targeting peptides work as inhibitors of protein-protein interaction and improve CD8+ cytotoxic T-lymphocyte (CTL) activation in the tumor microenvironment, for example, PKHB1, Ar5Y4 and TPP1. Peptides could be designed to regulate CIP protein degradation in vivo, such as PD-LYSO and PD-PALM. Besides its use in developing therapeutic drugs for targeting CIP, targeting peptides could be used in drug's targeted delivery and diagnosis in tumor immune therapy.

(2) Bin Hafeez A, Jiang X, Bergen PJ, Zhu Y. Antimicrobial Peptides: An Update on Classifications and Databases. Int J Mol Sci. 2021 Oct 28;22(21):11691. doi: 10.3390/ijms222111691. 

Abstract. Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are distributed across all kingdoms of life and are an indispensable component of host defenses. They consist of predominantly short cationic peptides with a wide variety of structures and targets. Given the ever-emerging resistance of various pathogens to existing antimicrobial therapies, AMPs have recently attracted extensive interest as potential therapeutic agents. As the discovery of new AMPs has increased, many databases specializing in AMPs have been developed to collect both fundamental and pharmacological information. In this review, we summarize the sources, structures, modes of action, and classifications of AMPs. Additionally, we examine current AMP databases, compare valuable computational tools used to predict antimicrobial activity and mechanisms of action, and highlight new machine learning approaches that can be employed to improve AMP activity to combat global antimicrobial resistance.

(3) O'Connor J, Garcia-Vaquero M, Meaney S, Tiwari BK. Bioactive Peptides from Algae: Traditional and Novel Generation Strategies, Structure-Function Relationships, and Bioinformatics as Predictive Tools for Bioactivity. Mar Drugs. 2022 May 10;20(5):317. doi: 10.3390/md20050317. 

Abstract. Over the last decade, algae have been explored as alternative and sustainable protein sources for a balanced diet and more recently, as a potential source of algal-derived bioactive peptides with potential health benefits. This review will focus on the emerging processes for the generation and isolation of bioactive peptides or cryptides from algae, including: (1) pre-treatments of algae for the extraction of protein by physical and biochemical methods; and (2) methods for the generation of bioactive including enzymatic hydrolysis and other emerging methods. To date, the main biological properties of the peptides identified from algae, including anti-hypertensive, antioxidant and anti-proliferative/cytotoxic effects (for this review, anti-proliferative/cytotoxic will be referred to by the term anti-cancer), assayed in vitro and/or in vivo, will also be summarized emphasizing the structure-function relationship and mechanism of action of these peptides. Moreover, the use of in silico methods, such as quantitative structural activity relationships (QSAR) and molecular docking for the identification of specific peptides of bioactive interest from hydrolysates will be described in detail together with the main challenges and opportunities to exploit algae as a source of bioactive peptides.

Pentapeptide-81 is a chemical compound, a class of biomolecules in abbreviated form, a synthetic protein composed of five amino acids linked together among which: arginine, asparagine, phenylalanine and threonine.

The name describes the structure of the molecule:

• Pentapeptide  indicates that the molecule is composed of five amino acids linked together.
• 81 - The numeral represents a specific sequence or variant of the pentapeptide, indicating its unique identification or the particular modification in its sequence compared to other similar peptides.

What it is used for and where

Pentapeptide-81 is used in cosmetic formulations for its properties in enhancing skin brightness and clarity. This peptide is effective at improving skin brightness and reducing the visibility of dark spots, contributing to a more even and radiant skin tone. It is commonly used in brightening serums and creams, spot treatments, and specific products aimed at enhancing skin clarity.

Cosmetics - INCI Functions

• Skin protectant. It creates a protective barrier on the skin to defend it from harmful substances, irritants, allergens, pathogens that can cause various inflammatory conditions. These products can also improve the natural skin barrier and in most cases more than one is needed to achieve an effective result.
• Skin conditioning agent - Miscellaneous.  This ingredient has the task of modifying and improving the condition of the skin when it is damaged or dry, reducing flaking and restoring its elasticity.

Synthetic peptides can be generated as copies of protein fragments by incorporating non-proteinogenic amino acids and modifications to enhance the proteolytic stability of the molecules. Peptides are used in the development of therapeutic drugs (1) for their antimicrobial activity (2), and their bioactive interest (3).

The industrial production process of peptides can be divided into several key phases.

• Peptide Synthesis. This phase involves the chemical or biotechnological synthesis of the desired peptides. Chemical synthesis involves building the peptide one step at a time, using protection and deprotection of functional groups to control the reactivity of the amino acid residues. Biotechnological synthesis, on the other hand, may involve the use of microorganisms or cultured cells to produce peptides through gene expression.
• Isolation and Purification. After synthesis, peptides need to be isolated and purified from contaminants and reaction intermediates. This can be done using separation techniques such as chromatography.
• Characterization. Once purified, peptides need to be characterized to determine their identity, purity, and biological activity. This can be done using analytical techniques such as mass spectrometry and chromatography.
• Formulation and Stability. Finally, peptides can be formulated into pharmaceutical or cosmetic preparations and tested for their stability and safety.

References_____________________________________________________________________

(1) Yuan Y. Mechanisms Inspired Targeting Peptides. Adv Exp Med Biol. 2020;1248:531-546. doi: 10.1007/978-981-15-3266-5_21. 

Abstract. Peptides, as a large group of molecules, are composed of amino acid residues and can be divided into linear or cyclic peptides according to the structure. Over 13,000 molecules of natural peptides have been found and many of them have been well studied. In artificial peptide libraries, the number of peptide diversity could be up to 1 × 1013. Peptides have more complex structures and higher affinity to target proteins comparing with small molecular compounds. Recently, the development of targeting cancer immune checkpoint (CIP) inhibitors is having a very important role in tumor therapy. Peptides targeting ligands or receptors in CIP have been designed based on three-dimensional structures of target proteins or directly selected by random peptide libraries in biological display systems. Most of these targeting peptides work as inhibitors of protein-protein interaction and improve CD8+ cytotoxic T-lymphocyte (CTL) activation in the tumor microenvironment, for example, PKHB1, Ar5Y4 and TPP1. Peptides could be designed to regulate CIP protein degradation in vivo, such as PD-LYSO and PD-PALM. Besides its use in developing therapeutic drugs for targeting CIP, targeting peptides could be used in drug's targeted delivery and diagnosis in tumor immune therapy.

(2) Bin Hafeez A, Jiang X, Bergen PJ, Zhu Y. Antimicrobial Peptides: An Update on Classifications and Databases. Int J Mol Sci. 2021 Oct 28;22(21):11691. doi: 10.3390/ijms222111691. 

Abstract. Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are distributed across all kingdoms of life and are an indispensable component of host defenses. They consist of predominantly short cationic peptides with a wide variety of structures and targets. Given the ever-emerging resistance of various pathogens to existing antimicrobial therapies, AMPs have recently attracted extensive interest as potential therapeutic agents. As the discovery of new AMPs has increased, many databases specializing in AMPs have been developed to collect both fundamental and pharmacological information. In this review, we summarize the sources, structures, modes of action, and classifications of AMPs. Additionally, we examine current AMP databases, compare valuable computational tools used to predict antimicrobial activity and mechanisms of action, and highlight new machine learning approaches that can be employed to improve AMP activity to combat global antimicrobial resistance.

(3) O'Connor J, Garcia-Vaquero M, Meaney S, Tiwari BK. Bioactive Peptides from Algae: Traditional and Novel Generation Strategies, Structure-Function Relationships, and Bioinformatics as Predictive Tools for Bioactivity. Mar Drugs. 2022 May 10;20(5):317. doi: 10.3390/md20050317. 

Abstract. Over the last decade, algae have been explored as alternative and sustainable protein sources for a balanced diet and more recently, as a potential source of algal-derived bioactive peptides with potential health benefits. This review will focus on the emerging processes for the generation and isolation of bioactive peptides or cryptides from algae, including: (1) pre-treatments of algae for the extraction of protein by physical and biochemical methods; and (2) methods for the generation of bioactive including enzymatic hydrolysis and other emerging methods. To date, the main biological properties of the peptides identified from algae, including anti-hypertensive, antioxidant and anti-proliferative/cytotoxic effects (for this review, anti-proliferative/cytotoxic will be referred to by the term anti-cancer), assayed in vitro and/or in vivo, will also be summarized emphasizing the structure-function relationship and mechanism of action of these peptides. Moreover, the use of in silico methods, such as quantitative structural activity relationships (QSAR) and molecular docking for the identification of specific peptides of bioactive interest from hydrolysates will be described in detail together with the main challenges and opportunities to exploit algae as a source of bioactive peptides.