Pineapple (Ananas comosus)

Description

Pineapple is the fruit (technically, a multiple fruit or syncarp) of the tropical plant Ananas comosus, a perennial species in the family Bromeliaceae, originally from South America and now cultivated across many tropical regions worldwide. The plant is herbaceous, with a rosette of rigid, spiny leaves, and typically produces a single central fruit per cropping cycle.

The fruit is formed by the fusion of many small berries that merge around a fibrous central core. Externally, it has a characteristic “scaly” rind made of hexagonal eyes, green at first and then golden-yellow at maturity, topped by the recognizable crown of leaves. The inner pulp is yellow, juicy, with a fibrous yet tender texture, a sweet–tart taste, and an intense, fresh, “tropical” aroma.

From a compositional perspective, pineapple is a high-water fruit with a moderate content of simple sugars and a relatively low energy value. It is known for its vitamin C content, for the proteolytic enzyme bromelain, and for a variety of volatile aroma compounds that define its sensory profile. Thanks to these characteristics, pineapple is used both as fresh fruit and as raw material for juices, canned products, dried products, and functional ingredients in the food and cosmetic sectors.

Botanical classification

• Common name: pineapple

• Botanical name: Ananas comosus

• Family: Bromeliaceae

• Origin: tropical South America (Brazil, Paraguay, Amazon region); now widely cultivated in many tropical and subtropical regions

• General features: Perennial herb, low-growing (about 1–1.5 m), forming a rosette of stiff, spiny, lanceolate leaves. Each main axis produces a single compact fruit formed by the fusion of many small berries into one large, fleshy, sugary infructescence.

Cultivation and growing conditions

Climate

• Typical tropical–subtropical crop requiring warm, frost-free conditions.

• Prefers warm, moderately humid climates with no cold periods.

• Needs good water availability, usually about 800–1,500 mm of rain per year, well distributed, or supplementary irrigation where rainfall is insufficient.

• Sensitive both to prolonged cold and to extreme drought, which reduce growth and fruit quality.

Exposure

• Requires full sun for vigorous growth and for the accumulation of sugars and aroma in the fruit.

• In very hot regions with intense solar radiation, slight shading can reduce the risk of sunburn on fruits.

• Sites should be well ventilated but not excessively windy, to avoid mechanical damage to leaves and fruit.

Soil

• Adapts to different soil types but prefers light, well-drained, sandy-loam or loam soils with good organic matter.

• Very sensitive to waterlogging, which causes root rots and plant decline, so efficient drainage is essential.

• Optimal pH is slightly acidic, roughly between 4.5 and 6.5.

• Deep soils (at least 45–60 cm) without hardpans or dense stony layers favour good root development.

Irrigation

• In many humid tropical regions pineapple is grown under rain-fed conditions where rainfall is well distributed.

• In areas with irregular rainfall, supplementary irrigation (often drip or micro-sprinkler) is recommended to ensure constant soil moisture without saturation.

• Both excess water and extended drought should be avoided, as they affect fruit size, shape, uniformity and internal quality.

Temperature

• Grows best within about 15–30 °C, with often optimal performance around 22–32 °C.

• Persistent temperatures below 15 °C slow growth markedly; even light frosts can severely damage or kill plants.

• Excessive heat (above about 35–38 °C) combined with low humidity can cause fruit sunburn and strong stress to the plant.

Fertilization

• Pineapple is fairly demanding in nutrients, especially nitrogen and potassium.

• Before planting, generous applications of organic matter (well-matured manure or compost) are recommended to improve structure, fertility and water-holding capacity.

• Mineral fertilization should be well balanced:

  • Nitrogen to support leaf growth and plant development,

  • Phosphorus for root growth and flowering,

  • Potassium for fruit quality, sugar content, colour and storage life.

• In intensive systems, fertilizer rates are adjusted based on soil tests and, when available, leaf analysis.

Crop care

• Planting is usually done with suckers, crowns or slips taken from healthy, productive mother plants.

• Pineapple is often grown on raised beds to improve drainage and facilitate field operations.

• Weed control is essential, using hoeing, mulching or other soil management techniques, especially in young plantations.

• In many regions, artificial flower induction (e.g. with growth regulators) is practiced to synchronize and schedule harvests.

• Good field hygiene and careful management of soil moisture reduce basal rots, fungal diseases and other problems linked to water excess.

Harvest

• Pineapple is non-climacteric, so it must be harvested at an advanced stage of ripeness, when colour, aroma and soluble solids match varietal standards.

• Time to harvest depends on cultivar, climate and management, but the first harvest usually occurs several months after flower induction.

• Fruits are mainly harvested by hand, cutting them with a short portion of stalk to reduce mechanical damage.

• After harvest, fruits should be handled carefully and stored in cool, well-ventilated conditions to preserve quality and limit rots.

Propagation

• Propagation is almost exclusively vegetative, using:

  • Crowns (top of the fruit),

  • Suckers from the base of the plant,

  • Slips produced below the fruit or along the stem.

• Propagation material must come from healthy, productive plants, free from viruses and other diseases.

• Before planting, propagules are often allowed to dry briefly so cut surfaces can heal, reducing infection risk.

Indicative nutritional values per 100 g (fresh pulp)

Average values for raw fresh pineapple; they may vary by variety, ripeness, and origin.

• Energy: ~50 kcal

• Water: ~85–86 g

• Protein: ~0.5 g

• Total carbohydrates: ~13 g

  • simple sugars (glucose, fructose, sucrose): ~10–11 g

• Total fat: ~0.1 g

  • SFA (saturated fatty acids, first occurrence): ≈0.01 g

  • MUFA: ≈0.02 g

  • PUFA: ≈0.03 g

  • TFA: negligible

• Dietary fiber: ~1–1.5 g

• Vitamins (indicative):

  • vitamin C: ~45–50 mg

  • traces of vitamin A (carotenoids) and B-group vitamins

• Minerals (indicative):

  • potassium: ~110–120 mg

  • magnesium, calcium, phosphorus, manganese: present in modest but meaningful amounts

  • sodium: very low

Key constituents

• Water (major component of the pulp)

• Simple carbohydrates: glucose, fructose, sucrose

• Dietary fiber: mainly insoluble fiber

• Vitamin C (ascorbic acid)

• B-group vitamins in small amounts (e.g., B1, B6)

• Minerals: potassium, manganese, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus

• Bromelain: proteolytic enzyme complex, concentrated mainly in the stem but also present in the pulp

• Phenolic compounds and carotenoids (moderate amounts, with antioxidant contribution)

• Volatile aromatic compounds (esters, alcohols, aldehydes, terpenoids) responsible for the typical pineapple aroma

Production process

(Fresh fruit and main food-industry uses)

1. Cultivation

   • Tropical/subtropical crop, often grown in intensive plantations

   • Propagation by suckers, crowns, or side shoots

2. Harvesting

   • Manual or semi-mechanical harvesting at the appropriate ripeness (rind color, soluble solids, aroma)

3. Sorting and grading

   • Removal of damaged or defective fruit

   • Grading by size and quality

4. Post-harvest processing

   • For fresh fruit: washing, optional cutting into slices or chunks, packaging in trays or modified-atmosphere packs

   • For canned pineapple: peeling, coring, slicing, blanching, filling with syrup or juice, heat treatment/pasteurization

   • For juice or concentrate: crushing, pressing, clarification/filtration, concentration, pasteurization

   • For dried pineapple: cutting into pieces or rings, hot-air or other dehydration processes

   • For extracts and functional ingredients (e.g., bromelain): specific extraction from pulp or stem

5. Packaging and distribution

   • Temperature control (cold chain) for fresh-cut and minimally processed pineapple

   • Adequate protection from oxygen and light for juices, concentrates, and canned products

Physical properties

• Appearance: cylindrical/ovoid multiple fruit with scaly rind and leafy crown; yellow pulp

• Density of the pulp: close to 1 g/ml (similar to water)

• pH: typically acidic (about 3.2–4.0)

• Soluble solids (°Brix): around 12–16 °Brix, depending on variety and maturity

• High water content → juicy but also perishable

• Presence of proteolytic enzymes (bromelain) that can degrade proteins under suitable conditions

Sensory and technological properties

• Taste: balanced sweet–acid profile, generally perceived as fresh and refreshing

• Aroma: intense, tropical, and complex, with fruity and floral notes

• Color: bright yellow pulp, visually appealing and distinctive

• Texture: fibrous yet juicy; the core is harder and more fibrous

Relevant technological points:

• Bromelain can be used in marinades to tenderize meat (proteolytic action).

• The same bromelain can interfere with gelatine and dairy in fresh desserts, causing poor gelation or texture changes (typical issue in jelly desserts containing raw pineapple).

• Thermal processing (cooking/pasteurization) inactivates most of the enzyme, reducing these effects.

• Organic acids and vitamin C help maintain color stability, but oxidation and poor storage can lead to browning and off-flavors.

Food applications

• Fresh consumption: slices, chunks, fruit salads

• Juices and nectars: single-fruit or blended with other juices

• Canned products: pineapple in syrup, in juice, or in its own juice

• Dried products: pieces or rings as snacks or ingredients

• Bakery and desserts: cakes (e.g., upside-down pineapple cake), puddings, yogurts, ice creams

• Savory dishes: combinations with white meat, rice, pizza, sweet-and-sour dishes

• Marinades and functional preparations: pineapple or bromelain used as a tenderizing aid for meat

Nutrition and health

• Moderate energy and high water content, useful for hydration.

• Source of vitamin C, contributing to protection from oxidative stress and normal immune function.

• Provides manganese and other minerals in a favorable ratio to calories.

• Contains dietary fiber, supporting intestinal transit when consumed regularly as part of a varied diet.

• Bromelain has been studied for potential digestive and anti-inflammatory effects; however, its effective dose and bioavailability from pineapple alone are variable and generally lower than from standardized supplements.

• The simple sugar content should be considered in people with diabetes or those monitoring carbohydrate intake; pineapple can fit in the diet, with attention to portion size and food pairing.

• Acidity and proteolytic enzymes may cause oral burning or gastric discomfort in sensitive individuals (e.g., reflux, very delicate mucosa).

Portion note

A reasonable standard portion is about 150 g fresh pineapple (roughly one cup of chunks), providing ~75 kcal and a good intake of vitamin C, within an overall balanced diet.

Allergens and intolerances

• Pineapple is not one of the major regulated allergens, but the following may occur:

  • Hypersensitivity to bromelain in susceptible individuals

  • Oral allergy syndrome in people sensitized to certain pollens or related fruits

  • Irritation of oral mucosa and lips due to the combined effect of acidity and enzymes

• In processed products (canned, dried, juices), sulfites may be used as preservatives. Where present above regulatory thresholds, they must be declared on the label and are important for sulfite-sensitive consumers.

Storage and shelf-life

• Whole fresh fruit:

  • At room temperature: a few days, depending on ripeness at purchase

  • In cool, ventilated conditions: shelf-life can be extended slightly

  • Avoid bruising or mechanical damage (favours spoilage and fermentation)

• Cut pineapple:

  • Store refrigerated (≈4 °C) in a closed container

  • Typical shelf-life: 2–3 days for good sensory and microbiological quality

• Canned pineapple:

  • Shelf-life of many months/years if the container is intact

  • Once opened: refrigerate and consume within a few days

• Dried pineapple:

  • More stable over time, provided it is protected from moisture and light

  • Monitor for oxidation and potential loss of aroma if stored improperly

Safety and regulatory

• For fresh pineapple, there are no specific intake limits for the general healthy population, when consumed as part of a balanced diet.

• For processed pineapple products, regulations cover:

  • Pesticide residue limits according to national/EU rules

  • Use and labeling of additives (e.g., sulfites, acidity regulators, colorants)

• In industrial production of juices, canned fruit, and fresh-cut products, GMP/HACCP systems are applied to ensure food safety.

Labeling

• Name of the food:

  • “pineapple” for the fruit;

  • additional wording for the form: “pineapple in syrup”, “pineapple in juice”, “dried pineapple”, etc.

• Ingredient list in descending order by weight, with clear indication of added sugars (“with added sugars”) where relevant.

• Declaration of any preservatives (e.g., sulfites), highlighted where required for allergen information.

• On prepacked products: nutrition declaration, date marking (use-by or best-before), and storage conditions.

• Possible indication of country of origin and of certifications (e.g., organic, fair trade).

Troubleshooting

Typical issues in pineapple processing and use:

• Bland or low-sweetness fruit:

  • harvested too early

  • variety with low °Brix

  • prolonged or improper storage

• Excessive sourness or harsh taste:

  • insufficient ripeness

  • imbalance between organic acids and sugars

  • excessive acidification in juices or canned products

• Pulp browning:

  • enzymatic oxidation after mechanical damage

  • exposure to air and high temperatures

  • extended storage of cut product

• Failure of gelation in jelly desserts:

  • use of raw pineapple (active bromelain hydrolyses gelatine)

  • solution: use cooked or pasteurized pineapple (enzyme inactivated)

• Fermentation / off-odors:

  • break in the cold chain for fresh-cut products

  • hygiene failures in processing or domestic storage

Sustainability and supply chain

• Tropical crop requiring specific climatic conditions, potentially associated with:

  • intensive land use and agrochemical inputs in conventional systems

  • risks of soil erosion and biodiversity loss in sensitive areas

• Increasing adoption of:

  • organic or low-impact cultivation practices

  • fair trade initiatives to protect producers and workers

  • sustainable management of soil and water resources

• By-products (peel, core, leaves) can be valorized as:

  • biomass for energy or compost

  • a source of bromelain and other functional ingredients

  • dietary fiber or feed components (after appropriate treatment)

• Preference for sea freight and optimized logistics helps decrease the carbon footprint of pineapple supply chains.

Main INCI functions (cosmetics)

In cosmetics, pineapple appears under several INCI names, including:

• Ananas Sativus (Pineapple) Fruit Extract / Ananas Comosus (Pineapple) Fruit Extract

• Ananas Sativus (Pineapple) Juice

• Bromelain (isolated enzyme complex)

Key cosmetic functions:

• enzymatic exfoliant (bromelain, gentle proteolytic action on the stratum corneum)

• skin conditioning and toning

• support for skin radiance due to the combined action of organic acids, vitamin C, and enzymes

• coadjuvant in hand and foot products to soften rough, thickened skin

• aromatic and fragrance component in some formulations

Cosmetic astringent. This ingredient exerts a direct effect on the skin by tightening dilated pores by contracting stratum corneum cells and removing superfluous oil.

Humectant. Hygroscopic compound used to minimise water loss in the skin and to prevent it from drying out by facilitating faster and greater absorption of water into the stratum corneum of the epidermis.  The epidermis is the most superficial of the three layers that make up human skin (epidermis, dermis and hypodermis) and is the layer that maintains hydration in all three layers. In turn, the epidermis is composed of five layers: horny, the most superficial, granular, spinous, shiny, and basal. Humectants have the ability to retain the water they attract from the air in the stratum corneum and have the function of moisturising the skin. They are best used before emollients, which are oil-based.

Skin protectant. It creates a protective barrier on the skin to defend it from harmful substances, irritants, allergens, pathogens that can cause various inflammatory conditions. These products can also improve the natural skin barrier and in most cases more than one is needed to achieve an effective result.

Conclusion

Pineapple is a tropical fruit with high sensory value and a solid nutritional profile, thanks to its water content, vitamin C, sugars, and bromelain. Its uses are extremely versatile, ranging from fresh consumption to juices, canned and dried products, and further to extracts and functional ingredients for cosmetics. Conscious management of portion size allows consumers to enjoy its qualities without excessive sugar intake, while a controlled and sustainable supply chain supports product quality, safety, environmental protection, and fair conditions for producers.

Studies

In traditional medical practice, it is used to treat digestive disorders and to prevent and treat cardiovascular disorders such as cholesterol plaques, thrombophlebitis and thrombosis. It also exerts fibrinolytic activity by limiting blood vessel obstruction. 

There is evidence of antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antiplatelet activity (1).

The anthelmintic activity (combating parasites in the human body) (2) of alcoholic and aqueous extracts of Ananas sativus has been established.

Mini-glossary

• SFA: saturated fatty acids. Excess intake can raise LDL cholesterol; in pineapple they are present only in negligible amounts.

• MUFA: monounsaturated fatty acids, generally considered beneficial for cardiovascular health when they replace saturated fats.

• PUFA: polyunsaturated fatty acids, including omega-3 and omega-6; they play important roles in cell function and inflammatory responses.

• TFA: trans fatty acids. Fresh pineapple essentially contains no TFA; major nutritional concern relates to industrial trans fats from hydrogenated oils.

• GMP/HACCP: good manufacturing practices / hazard analysis and critical control points, organizational and technical systems that ensure food safety along the supply chain.

References________________________________________________________________________

(1) Hale LP, Greer PK, Trinh CT, Gottfried MR. Treatment with oral bromelain decreases colonic inflammation in the IL-10-deficient murine model of inflammatory bowel disease. Clin Immunol. 2005 Aug;116(2):135-42. doi: 10.1016/j.clim.2005.04.011. 

Abstract. Bromelain is a mixture of proteinases derived from pineapple stem that is marketed in health food stores as a "digestive aid". Orally administered bromelain was anecdotally reported to induce clinical and endoscopic remission of ulcerative colitis in two patients whose disease was refractory to multi-agent conventional medical therapy. However, the potential efficacy of bromelain in colitis has not yet been tested rigorously in either animals or humans. In this study, the clinical and histologic severity of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) was determined in IL-10-/- mice treated orally with bromelain in vivo. Daily treatment with oral bromelain beginning at age 5 weeks decreased the incidence and severity of spontaneous colitis in C57BL/6 IL-10-/- mice. Bromelain also significantly decreased the clinical and histologic severity of colonic inflammation when administered to piroxicam-exposed IL-10-/- mice with established colitis. Proteolytically active bromelain was required for anti-inflammatory effects in vivo. Adverse effects of dermatitis, hair loss, and weight loss due to mucositis were rare, dose related, and were not seen in wild-type mice treated orally with up to 1000 mg bromelain/kg/day for 18 weeks. Although the exact mechanisms by which exogenous proteinases affect bowel inflammation have not yet been determined, the results justify additional studies of this complementary biologically based approach to treatment of IBD.

Lin D, Zhou X, Zhao H, Tao X, Yu S, Zhang X, Zang Y, Peng L, Yang L, Deng S, Li X, Mao X, Luan A, He J, Ma J. The Synergistic Mechanism of Photosynthesis and Antioxidant Metabolism between the Green and White Tissues of Ananas comosus var. bracteatus Chimeric Leaves. Int J Mol Sci. 2023 May 25;24(11):9238. doi: 10.3390/ijms24119238. 

Abstract. Ananas comosus var. bracteatus (Ac. bracteatus) is a typical leaf-chimeric ornamental plant. The chimeric leaves are composed of central green photosynthetic tissue (GT) and marginal albino tissue (AT). The mosaic existence of GT and AT makes the chimeric leaves an ideal material for the study of the synergistic mechanism of photosynthesis and antioxidant metabolism. The daily changes in net photosynthetic rate (NPR) and stomatal conductance (SCT) of the leaves indicated the typical crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) characteristic of Ac. bracteatus. Both the GT and AT of chimeric leaves fixed CO2 during the night and released CO2 from malic acid for photosynthesis during the daytime. The malic acid content and NADPH-ME activity of the AT during the night was significantly higher than that of GT, which suggests that the AT may work as a CO2 pool to store CO2 during the night and supply CO2 for photosynthesis in the GT during the daytime. Furthermore, the soluble sugar content (SSC) in the AT was significantly lower than that of GT, while the starch content (SC) of the AT was apparently higher than that of GT, indicating that AT was inefficient in photosynthesis but may function as a photosynthate sink to help the GT maintain high photosynthesis activity. Additionally, the AT maintained peroxide balance by enhancing the non-enzymatic antioxidant system and antioxidant enzyme system to avoid antioxidant damage. The enzyme activities of reductive ascorbic acid (AsA) and the glutathione (GSH) cycle (except DHAR) and superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and peroxidase (POD) were enhanced, apparently to make the AT grow normally. This study indicates that, although the AT of the chimeric leaves was inefficient at photosynthesis because of the lack of chlorophyll, it can cooperate with the GT by working as a CO2 supplier and photosynthate store to enhance the photosynthetic ability of GT to help chimeric plants grow well. Additionally, the AT can avoid peroxide damage caused by the lack of chlorophyll by enhancing the activity of the antioxidant system. The AT plays an active role in the normal growth of the chimeric leaves.

(2) M.S Akhtar, Zafar Iqbal, M.N Khan, Muhammad Lateef, Anthelmintic activity of medicinal plants with particular reference to their use in animals in the Indo–Pakistan subcontinent, Small Ruminant Research, Volume 38, Issue 2, 2000, Pages 99-107, ISSN 0921-4488, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0921-4488(00)00163-2 

Abstract: Helminthiasis is one of the most important group of parasitic diseases in Indo-Pakistan subcontinent resulting in heavy production losses in livestock. A wide variety of anthelmintics is used for the treatment of helminths in animals. However, the development of resistance in helminths against commonly used anthelmintics have always been a challenge faced by the animal health care professionals. Therefore, exploitation of anthelmintic potential of plants indigenous to Indo-Pak subcontinent is an area of research interest. This paper reviews the use of some indigenous plants as anthelmintics in animals.

Taira T, Toma N, Ishihara M. Purification, characterization, and antifungal activity of chitinases from pineapple (Ananas comosus) leaf. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem. 2005 Jan;69(1):189-96. doi: 10.1271/bbb.69.189.

Abstract. Three chitinases, designated pineapple leaf chitinase (PL Chi)-A, -B, and -C were purified from the leaves of pineapple (Ananas comosus) using chitin affinity column chromatography followed by several column chromatographies. PL Chi-A is a class III chitinase having a molecular mass of 25 kDa and an isoelectric point of 4.4. PL Chi-B and -C are class I chitinases having molecular masses of 33 kDa and 39 kDa and isoelectric points of 7.9 and 4.6 respectively. PL Chi-C is a glycoprotein and the others are simple proteins. The optimum pHs of PL Chi-A, -B, and -C toward glycolchitin are pH 3, 4, and 9 respectively. The chitin-binding ability of PL Chi-C is higher than that of PL Chi-B, and PL Chi-A has lower chitin-binding ability than the others. At low ionic strength, PL Chi-B exhibits strong antifungal activity toward Trichoderma viride but the others do not. At high ionic strength, PL Chi-B and -C exhibit strong and weak antifungal activity respectively. PL Chi-A does not have antifungal activity.