Broccoli (Brassica oleracea L. var. italica)

Broccoli is a cruciferous vegetable belonging to the Brassicaceae (Cruciferae) family, the same group as cauliflower, cabbage, Brussels sprouts and kale. Botanically it is a selection of Brassica oleracea var. italica, originating from the Mediterranean area, where a mild, cool climate favours the formation of the typical compact flower heads.

The edible portion is mainly the immature flower heads (compact clusters of flower buds) together with part of the tender stalks. The “flowers” we see are actually tightly closed buds; if the plant is left too long in the field, the buds elongate and open into small yellow flowers, which is a sign of overmaturity and quality loss. There are several types of broccoli: the classic single green head, sprouting broccoli with many smaller heads, curly or branching forms, and intermediate types between broccoli and cauliflower (e.g. Romanesco).

Broccoli is typically a cool-season crop, mainly available in autumn and winter, appreciated for its slightly sweet–bitter flavour, tender yet meaty texture and high content of vitamin C, vitamin K, folate, fibre and characteristic sulfur-containing phytochemicals (notably glucosinolates and their derivative sulforaphane). These features make broccoli a vegetable of great interest in nutrition and nutraceuticals.

Indicative nutritional values per 100 g (raw broccoli)

Average values for 100 g of raw broccoli (edible portion, florets and tender stems):

• Energy: about 30–35 kcal

• Water: about 89–91 g

• Total carbohydrates: about 6–7 g

  • of which sugars: about 1.5–2 g

• Total fibre: about 2.5–4 g

• Protein: about 2.5–3 g

• Total fat: about 0.3–0.6 g

  • SFA (saturated fatty acids, whose excess from all dietary sources is associated with less favourable blood lipid profiles): very small fraction (around 0.1 g)

  • MUFA (monounsaturated fatty acids): traces

  • PUFA (polyunsaturated fatty acids, including n-6 and n-3 series, involved in inflammation and cardiovascular health): traces

• Vitamin C: about 80–100 mg/100 g (very high)

• Vitamin K: about 80–100 µg/100 g

• Folate (vitamin B9): meaningful amount (roughly 10–20% of daily requirement in 100 g)

• Provitamin A (beta-carotene and other carotenoids): present at appreciable levels

• Key minerals: potassium, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, manganese

During cooking, part of the heat- and water-sensitive nutrients (especially vitamin C and some glucosinolates) is lost. Short, gentle cooking (e.g. steaming or quick stir-frying with minimal water) helps preserve a larger share of these compounds.

Key constituents

Beyond macro- and micronutrients, broccoli is particularly known for its bioactive phytochemicals:

• Glucosinolates (especially glucoraphanin, but also other typical Brassicaceae glucosinolates).

• Sulforaphane: an isothiocyanate derived from glucoraphanin by the enzyme myrosinase, activated when plant tissue is cut, chopped or chewed. Sulforaphane is one of the most studied compounds for potential chemoprotective, antioxidant and detoxification-supporting effects.

• Indole-3-carbinol and other indole derivatives, associated with possible hormone-modulating and cell-protective actions.

• Polyphenols: flavonoids (e.g. quercetin, kaempferol, isorhamnetin) and phenolic acids that contribute to overall antioxidant capacity.

• Carotenoids: beyond beta-carotene, broccoli provides lutein and zeaxanthin, relevant for eye health.

• Vitamin C: a powerful water-soluble antioxidant, cooperating with polyphenols.

• Dietary fibre: supporting satiety, gut motility and microbiota modulation.

In broccoli sprouts, concentrations of glucoraphanin and potential sulforaphane are often higher than in the mature vegetable, which explains their popularity in some functional foods and supplements.

Production process

From field to table, the main steps are:

• Cultivation: broccoli is a cool-season crop, grown on medium-textured, well-drained soils with slightly sub-neutral pH. It is usually sown in nursery trays and later transplanted into the field in rows, following crop rotation schemes to limit pests and diseases.

• Crop management: requires balanced fertilisation in nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. Excess nitrogen may promote lush vegetative growth and nitrate build-up, though the edible part (the floret) is generally less critical than leafy vegetables in this respect.

• Harvesting: carried out when the head is well developed, compact and deep green, before buds begin to separate and show any yellow petals. In sprouting types, after the main head is cut, smaller side shoots develop and can be harvested later.

• Post-harvest handling: removal of coarse outer leaves, trimming of stems, washing to remove soil and debris, and optional cutting into individual florets.

• Processing: broccoli may be sold fresh, frozen, prepared as fresh ready-to-cook packs (washed, cut florets) or used in ready meals, soups and mixed vegetable products.

Physical properties

• Appearance: compact green florets forming a head, surface finely granular, with fleshy light-green stems.

• Texture: when raw, broccoli is firm and crisp; after cooking the floret becomes tender and slightly velvety, while the stem, if not too fibrous, retains pleasant bite.

• Water content: high (around 90%), with modest dry matter.

• Stability: sensitive to yellowing, softening and head opening if stored too long or at inadequate temperature; visible yellow flowers indicate loss of optimal quality.

Sensory and technological properties

• Flavour: typically sweet–bitter, with green and slightly sulfurous notes characteristic of Brassicaceae, more pronounced in some cultivars and with certain cooking methods.

• Aroma: vegetal; with prolonged boiling the sulfur notes become dominant and may be perceived as unpleasant, whereas short steaming or quick sautéing give a more balanced aromatic profile.

• Texture in cooking:

  • Short cooking (steam, stir-fry): florets remain tender yet intact, with good bite.

  • Long boiling: structure becomes very soft, colour fades, and more volatile sulfur compounds are released.

• Technological functionality:

  • suitable for blanching and then stir-frying or baking au gratin;

  • combines well with potatoes, cereals, legumes and cheese, providing structure, colour and flavour;

  • can be processed into purées for sauces, pasta toppings, fillings and soups.

Food applications

Broccoli is widely used in:

• Side dishes (steamed, boiled and dressed with olive oil and lemon, sautéed with garlic and oil).

• Soups, minestrone and vegetable creams.

• Main courses and first courses, such as pasta with broccoli, risottos, couscous, barley dishes.

• Savoury pies, bakes, frittatas/omelettes, vegetable patties and mixed dishes with grains and legumes.

• Oven-baked gratins, often combined with béchamel or cheese.

• Ethnic and fusion dishes (wok, stir-fries, curries) that value short, high-heat cooking.

Broccoli sprouts are also consumed raw in salads, bowls and sandwiches, especially where a high glucoraphanin content is desired.

Nutrition and health

Broccoli is a nutrient-dense vegetable, offering low energy and an interesting combination of vitamins, minerals, fibre and bioactive phytochemicals. Key points:

• Very high vitamin C and vitamin K support immune function, bone health and blood clotting.

• Glucosinolates and sulforaphane are widely studied for potential chemopreventive properties, activation of phase II detoxification enzymes, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects.

• Dietary fibre contributes to satiety, bowel regularity, and modulation of glycaemic and lipid responses.

• Carotenoids (lutein, zeaxanthin) and polyphenols help counter oxidative stress, with possible benefits for cardiovascular, metabolic and ocular health.

Overall, broccoli fits very well into Mediterranean-type diets and other prevention-oriented dietary patterns. Cooking methods that are short and gentle are preferable to preserve fragile phytochemicals and vitamins.

People treated with vitamin K-antagonist anticoagulants (e.g. warfarin) should consider broccoli’s high vitamin K content: they do not necessarily need to avoid it, but should keep intake regular and consistent, in agreement with their physician, and avoid abrupt changes.

Portion note

For a healthy adult, a reasonable cooked broccoli portion is:

• about 150–200 g cooked (roughly 200–250 g raw),

• as part of a diet including multiple servings of vegetables per day, alternating broccoli with other vegetable types and colours.

For individuals on anticoagulant therapy or with specific medical conditions, the amount and frequency of broccoli consumption should be discussed with a doctor or dietitian.

Allergens and intolerances

• Broccoli is not among the major regulated food allergens.

• Individual reactions may occur in people sensitive to Cruciferous/Brassicaceae vegetables (cabbage, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts, etc.).

• In some individuals with irritable or sensitive bowel, broccoli may promote bloating and gas, due to its fibre and fermentable components; careful cooking and moderate portions can help minimise discomfort.

Storage and shelf-life

• Fresh broccoli:

  • store in the refrigerator, ideally in the vegetable drawer, in a perforated or loosely closed bag;

  • typical household shelf-life: about 3–5 days;

  • with time, florets tend to yellow, buds begin to separate and open, and texture becomes less firm.

• Cooked or blanched broccoli:

  • keeps in the refrigerator for 1–2 days in a closed container;

  • can be frozen after blanching and kept for several months; once thawed, it should be eaten promptly and not refrozen.

Signs of spoilage include strong off-odours (intense rotten sulfur smell), visible mould, slimy or blackened surfaces. Such product should not be consumed.

Safety and regulatory

Broccoli is a traditional, widely consumed vegetable and is considered safe. Main safety and regulatory points:

• It belongs to the group of low-energy, high-benefit vegetables used in many countries’ dietary guidelines.

• Like other Brassicaceae, broccoli may contain nitrates, but the edible floret is generally less critical than leafy vegetables; European rules set nitrate limits mainly for spinach and lettuce, while good agricultural practices help minimise accumulation in broccoli.

• Official food safety monitoring includes checks on pesticide residues, heavy metals and microbiological contamination.

• When used in food supplements (e.g. broccoli sprout extracts standardised in glucoraphanin/sulforaphane), specific regulations for supplements and proper toxicological evaluation of concentrated extracts apply.

Labelling

For a food product based on broccoli:

• ingredient declaration such as “broccoli” or “broccoli florets (Brassica oleracea var. italica)”, with indication of form (fresh, frozen, cooked, puréed, in soup, etc.);

• standard nutrition declaration (energy, fat, of which saturates, carbohydrates, sugars, fibre, protein, salt);

• in processed products, full ingredient list and clear indication of any allergens present or potential traces (e.g. milk, gluten, nuts).

For food supplements (broccoli or broccoli sprout extracts):

• indication of the plant part used (e.g. sprouts, seeds, florets);

• degree of standardisation (e.g. glucoraphanin content);

• recommended daily dose and relevant warnings.

In cosmetic products, broccoli derivatives may appear under INCI names such as:

• Brassica Oleracea Italica Extract

• Brassica Oleracea Italica (Broccoli) Seed Oil

with specific functions depending on the type of ingredient.

Troubleshooting

• Broccoli turning mushy and pale after cooking

  • Cause: over-boiling or long cooking in excess water.

  • Action: favour short steaming (about 5–7 minutes) or brief boiling, use less water, and if needed cool quickly (e.g. for salads).

• Strong, unpleasant cooking odour

  • Cause: extensive release of sulfur volatiles due to long cooking or sub-optimal freshness.

  • Action: shorten cooking time, partially uncover the pot after the initial phase, ensure good kitchen ventilation, use fresh, firm broccoli.

• Broccoli disintegrating in dishes

  • Cause: very mature heads, excessive cooking, or poor freeze–thaw handling.

  • Action: for dishes where texture matters, choose compact florets, reduce cooking time, and add broccoli later in the recipe.

• Overly bitter taste

  • Cause: more bitter varieties, water stress in the field, or overmature heads.

  • Action: use gentle cooking (steam, light braising) and combine with potatoes, olive oil, garlic, lemon or cheese to balance bitterness.

Main INCI functions (cosmetics)

Broccoli-derived ingredients are increasingly used in cosmetics, especially:

• Brassica Oleracea Italica Extract (broccoli extract)

• Brassica Oleracea Italica (Broccoli) Seed Oil

Main cosmetic functions include:

• Astringent: helps provide a sensation of firmer, more toned skin.

• Skin conditioning: contributes to keeping the skin in good condition, improving comfort and surface feel, often in synergy with other actives.

• Antioxidant support: vitamins and sulfur-containing compounds (glucosinolate derivatives) provide additional protection against oxidative stress from UV and pollution.

• Hair conditioning / hair protection: broccoli seed oil is used in hair products to enhance shine, manageability and conditioning, sometimes as a partial alternative to certain silicones.

As with all botanical extracts, cosmetic use requires appropriate safety assessment (including irritation and sensitisation tests) and control of purity and contaminants.

Conclusion

Broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. italica) is a cruciferous vegetable that combines culinary versatility with high nutritional quality. Its rich content of vitamin C, vitamin K, folate, fibre, carotenoids, polyphenols and glucosinolates (especially glucoraphanin, precursor of sulforaphane) places it among the key vegetables in prevention-oriented dietary patterns.

When consumed regularly within a balanced diet, and cooked in ways that preserve sensitive phytochemicals, broccoli can support cardiovascular health, help modulate inflammation and oxidative stress, and promote satiety and bowel health. In the cosmetic field, broccoli extracts and seed oil serve as astringent, antioxidant and conditioning ingredients, aligning with the trend toward plant-based raw materials.

Mini-glossary

• Glucosinolates: sulfur-containing compounds typical of Brassicaceae; through the enzyme myrosinase they yield isothiocyanates (such as sulforaphane) and other bioactive derivatives.

• Sulforaphane: an isothiocyanate derived from glucoraphanin, studied for potential chemoprotective effects, activation of phase II detox enzymes and modulation of cellular antioxidant pathways.

• Indole-3-carbinol (I3C): compound derived from indole glucosinolates, investigated for possible hormone-modulating and cell-protective roles.

• Carotenoids: fat-soluble pigments (e.g. beta-carotene, lutein, zeaxanthin) with antioxidant activity and key roles in eye health.

• Polyphenols: a broad class of phenolic compounds with radical-scavenging effects and possible benefits for the cardiovascular system and metabolism.

• SFA (saturated fatty acids): fatty acids without double bonds; excess total intake is associated with less favourable blood lipid profiles.

• MUFA (monounsaturated fatty acids): fatty acids with one double bond, generally beneficial when they replace SFA in the diet.

• PUFA (polyunsaturated fatty acids): fatty acids with two or more double bonds (n-6 and n-3 series), involved in regulation of inflammation, cardiovascular function and other metabolic processes.

Bibliografia__________________________________________________________________________

Baladia E, Moñino M, Pleguezuelos E, Russolillo G, Garnacho-Castaño MV. Broccoli Consumption and Risk of Cancer: An Updated Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies. Nutrients. 2024 May 23;16(11):1583. doi: 10.3390/nu16111583. 

Abstract. Background: The scientific literature has reported an inverse association between broccoli consumption and the risk of suffering from several types of cancer; however, the results were not entirely consistent across studies. A systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies were conducted to determine the association between broccoli consumption and cancer risk with the aim of clarifying the beneficial biological effects of broccoli consumption on cancer. Methods: PubMed/MEDLINE, Web of Science, Scopus, Cochrane Library (CENTRAL), and Epistemonikos databases were searched to identify all published papers that evaluate the impact of broccoli consumption on the risk of cancer. Citation chasing of included studies was conducted as a complementary search strategy. The risk of bias in individual studies was assessed using the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale. A random-effects model meta-analysis was employed to quantitatively synthesize results, with the I2 index used to assess heterogeneity. Results: Twenty-three case-control studies (n = 12,929 cases and 18,363 controls; n = 31,292 individuals) and 12 cohort studies (n = 699,482 individuals) were included in the meta-analysis. The results suggest an inverse association between broccoli consumption and the risk of cancer both in case-control studies (OR: 0.64, 95% CI from 0.58 to 0.70, p < 0.001; Q = 35.97, p = 0.072, I2 = 30.49%-moderate heterogeneity; τ2 = 0.016) and cohort studies (RR: 0.89, 95% CI from 0.82 to 0.96, p = 0.003; Q = 13.51, p = 0.333, I2 = 11.21%-low heterogeneity; τ2 = 0.002). Subgroup analysis suggested a potential benefit of broccoli consumption in site-specific cancers only in case-control studies. Conclusions: In summary, the findings indicate that individuals suffering from some type of cancer consumed less broccoli, suggesting a protective biological effect of broccoli on cancer. More studies, especially cohort studies, are necessary to clarify the possible beneficial effect of broccoli on several types of cancer.

Nestle M. Broccoli sprouts in cancer prevention. Nutr Rev. 1998 Apr;56(4 Pt 1):127-30. doi: 10.1111/j.1753-4887.1998.tb01725.x. 

Abstract. Recent research has aimed to identify specific phytochemicals in Brassica vegetables, such as sulforaphane in broccoli, that may confer protection against cancer. Clinical, dietary, and policy implications are discussed.

Bowen-Forbes C, Armstrong E, Moses A, Fahlman R, Koosha H, Yager JY. Broccoli, Kale, and Radish Sprouts: Key Phytochemical Constituents and DPPH Free Radical Scavenging Activity. Molecules. 2023 May 23;28(11):4266. doi: 10.3390/molecules28114266.

Abstract. Our research group previously found that broccoli sprouts possess neuroprotective effects during pregnancy. The active compound has been identified as sulforaphane (SFA), obtained from glucosinolate and glucoraphanin, which are also present in other crucifers, including kale. Sulforaphene (SFE), obtained from glucoraphenin in radish, also has numerous biological benefits, some of which supersede those of sulforaphane. It is likely that other components, such as phenolics, contribute to the biological activity of cruciferous vegetables. Notwithstanding their beneficial phytochemicals, crucifers are known to contain erucic acid, an antinutritional fatty acid. The aim of this research was to phytochemically examine broccoli, kale, and radish sprouts to determine good sources of SFA and SFE to inform future studies of the neuroprotective activity of cruciferous sprouts on the fetal brain, as well as product development. Three broccoli: Johnny's Sprouting Broccoli (JSB), Gypsy F1 (GYP), and Mumm's Sprouting Broccoli (MUM), one kale: Johnny's Toscano Kale (JTK), and three radish cultivars: Black Spanish Round (BSR), Miyashige (MIY), and Nero Tunda (NT), were analyzed. We first quantified the glucosinolate, isothiocyanate, phenolics, and DPPH free radical scavenging activity (AOC) of one-day-old dark- and light-grown sprouts by HPLC. Radish cultivars generally had the highest glucosinolate and isothiocyanate contents, and kale had higher glucoraphanin and significantly higher sulforaphane content than the broccoli cultivars. Lighting conditions did not significantly affect the phytochemistry of the one-day-old sprouts. Based on phytochemistry and economic factors, JSB, JTK, and BSR were chosen for further sprouting for three, five, and seven days and subsequently analyzed. The three-day-old JTK and radish cultivars were identified to be the best sources of SFA and SFE, respectively, both yielding the highest levels of the respective compound while retaining high levels of phenolics and AOC and markedly lower erucic acid levels compared to one-day-old sprouts.

Andrés CMC, Pérez de la Lastra JM, Munguira EB, Juan CA, Pérez-Lebeña E. The Multifaceted Health Benefits of Broccoli-A Review of Glucosinolates, Phenolics and Antimicrobial Peptides. Molecules. 2025 May 22;30(11):2262. doi: 10.3390/molecules30112262.

Abstract. Broccoli, a highly valued Brassica vegetable, is renowned for its rich content of bioactive substances, including glucosinolates, phenolic compounds, vitamins, and essential minerals. Glucosinolates (GSLs), secondary plant metabolites, are particularly abundant in broccoli. The global consumption of broccoli has increased due to its high nutritional value. This review examines the essential bioactive compounds in broccoli and their biological properties. Numerous in vitro and in vivo studies have demonstrated that broccoli exhibits various biological activities, including antioxidant, anticancer, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, anti-obesity and antidiabetic effects. This review analyzes several aspects of the chemical and biological activity of GSLs and their hydrolysis products, isothiocyanates such as sulforaphane, as well as phenolic compounds. Particular emphasis is placed on sulforaphane's chemical structure, the reactivity of its isothiocyanate fraction (-NCS), and given the different behavior of SFN enantiomers, a wide and detailed review of the chemical synthesis methods described, by microbial oxidation, or using a chiral ruthenium catalyst and more widely using chiral auxiliaries for synthesizing sulforaphane enantiomers. In addition, the methods of chiral resolution of racemates by HPLC are reviewed, explaining the different chiral fillers used for this resolution and a third section on resolution using the formation of diastereomeric complexes and subsequent separation on achiral columns. Additionally, this review highlights the presence of antimicrobial peptides in broccoli, which have shown potential applications in food preservation and as natural alternatives to synthetic antibiotics. The antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) derived from broccoli target bacterial membranes, enzymes, oxidative stress pathways and inflammatory mediators, contributing to their effectiveness against a wide range of pathogens and with potential therapeutic applications.