Sugar or sucrose is the ingredient we buy to sweeten food and the one most commonly used in sweets.

Chemistry

In chemistry it is a disaccharide consisting of a molecule of fructose and a molecule of glucose. Each sugar molecule contains 12 carbon atoms, 22 hydrogen atoms and 11 oxygen atoms. It is formed when the monosaccharide sugars glucose and fructose react in a condensation reaction. This is the equation of the reaction:

C₆H₁₂O₆ + C₆H₁₂O₆ = C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁ + H₂O

Molecular formula    C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁

Molecular  weight   342.3

CAS    57-50-1

History of the sugar

Discovered by Christopher Columbus on his first trip in 1492 to the territory that is now the Dominican Republic  plenty of sugar cane. The cultivation was exported to Brazil and to the English, French and Dutch colonies. The harvest was good, but staff were needed for cutting the canes and processing and it was a very tiring job. In 1505 the first slaves from West Africa were brought in, then dominated by the Portuguese who had already started a flourishing trade in pepper and other spices and ivory.

It is estimated that, between 1500 and 1900, sugar was the most profitable and widespread commodity for the European economy.

Health

A normal intake of sugar in the body is important for human health, particularly for the brain (1).

Excessive or reiterated sugar or refined sugars consumption is primarily associated with the risk of:

• type 2 diabetes mellitus, 
• weight gain with consequent risk of obesity, 
• increase in cholesterol LDL 
• hepatic steatosis
• caries
• hypertension.

To counteract this trend, sugar levels in the blood must be lowered.

Flavonoids are phenolic compounds found in fruits and vegetables and have properties that prevent diabetes and its complications. This could improve blood sugar levels (2).

A reduction in the consumption of sugar-based sweetened beverages is recommended. The consumption of this type of beverage in early childhood is associated with increased risks of adiposity and risk of overweight/obesity (3).

Sugar studies

References_______________________________________________________________________

(1) Mergenthaler P, Lindauer U, Dienel GA, Meisel A. Sugar for the brain: the role of glucose in physiological and pathological brain function. Trends Neurosci. 2013 Oct;36(10):587-97. doi: 10.1016/j.tins.2013.07.001. Epub 2013 Aug 20. PMID: 23968694; PMCID: PMC3900881.

(2)   Al-Ishaq RK, Abotaleb M, Kubatka P, Kajo K, Büsselberg D. Flavonoids and Their Anti-Diabetic Effects: Cellular Mechanisms and Effects to Improve Blood Sugar Levels. Biomolecules. 2019 Sep 1;9(9). pii: E430. doi: 10.3390/biom9090430.

Abstract. Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a prevailing global health metabolic disorder, with an alarming incidence rate and a huge burden on health care providers. DM is characterized by the elevation of blood glucose due either to a defect in insulin synthesis, secretion, binding to receptor, or an increase of insulin resistance. The internal and external factors such as obesity, urbanizations, and genetic mutations could increase the risk of developing DM. Flavonoids are phenolic compounds existing as secondary metabolites in fruits and vegetables as well as fungi. Their structure consists of 15 carbon skeletons and two aromatic rings (A and B) connected by three carbon chains. Flavonoids are furtherly classified into 6 subclasses: flavonols, flavones, flavanones, isoflavones, flavanols, and anthocyanidins. Naturally occurring flavonoids possess anti-diabetic effects. As in vitro and animal model's studies demonstrate, they have the ability to prevent diabetes and its complications. The aim of this review is to summarize the current knowledge addressing the antidiabetic effects of dietary flavonoids and their underlying molecular mechanisms on selected pathways: Glucose transporter, hepatic enzymes, tyrosine kinase inhibitor, AMPK, PPAR, and NF-κB. Flavonoids improve the pathogenesis of diabetes and its complications through the regulation of glucose metabolism, hepatic enzymes activities, and a lipid profile. Most studies illustrate a positive role of specific dietary flavonoids on diabetes, but the mechanisms of action and the side effects need more clarification. Overall, more research is needed to provide a better understanding of the mechanisms of diabetes treatment using flavonoids.

(3)   Quah PL, Kleijweg J, Chang YY, Toh JY, Lim HX, Sugianto R, Aris IM, Yuan WL, Tint MT, Bernard JY, Natarajan P, Müller-Riemenschneider F, Godfrey KM, Gluckman PD, Chong YS, Shek LP, Tan KH, Eriksson JG, Yap F, Lee YS, Chong MFF. Br Association of sugar-sweetened beverage intake at 18 months and 5 years of age with adiposity outcomes at 6 years of age: the Singapore GUSTO mother–offspring cohort Nutr. 2019 Sep 3:1-25. doi: 10.1017/S0007114519002253

Abstract. Consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages (SSB) by infants and young children are less explored in Asian populations. The Growing Up in Singapore Towards healthy Outcomes cohort study examined associations between SSB intake at 18 months and 5 years of age, with adiposity measures at 6 years of age. We studied Singaporean infants/children with SSB intake assessed by FFQ at 18 months of age (n 555) and 5 years of age (n 767). The median for SSB intakes is 28 (interquartile range 5·5–98) ml at 18 months of age and 111 (interquartile range 57–198) ml at 5 years of age. Association between SSB intake (100 ml/d increments and tertile categories) and adiposity measures (BMI standard deviation scores (sd units), sum of skinfolds (SSF)) and overweight/obesity status were examined using multivariable linear and Poisson regression models, respectively. After adjusting for confounders and additionally for energy intake, SSB intake at age 18 months were not significantly associated with later adiposity measures and overweight/obesity outcomes. In contrast, at age 5 years, SSB intake when modelled as 100 ml/d increments were associated with higher BMI by 0·09 (95 % CI 0·02, 0·16) sd units, higher SSF thickness by 0·68 (95 % CI 0·06, 1·44) mm and increased risk of overweight/obesity by 1·2 (95 % CI 1·07, 1·23) times at age 6 years. Trends were consistent with SSB intake modelled as categorical tertiles. In summary, SSB intake in young childhood is associated with higher risks of adiposity and overweight/obesity. Public health policies working to reduce SSB consumption need to focus on prevention programmes targeted at young children.