Dried pumpkin. 

Raw materials used in production. 

• The fundamental raw material for dried pumpkin is, naturally, fresh pumpkin, which is harvested once it reaches maturity.

Step-by-step summary of industrial production process.

• Harvesting. Pumpkins are harvested from fields once they have reached the appropriate level of maturity.
• Cleaning and Cutting. The pumpkins are cleaned and cut into uniform pieces.
• Drying. The pumpkin pieces are dried using a drying process which might include the use of hot air dryers or sun-drying platforms.
• Quality Check. After drying, the pumpkin is inspected to ensure it is adequately dried and free from imperfections.

Form and color. 

Dried pumpkin can vary in color from a pale orange to a darker orange and may be available in various shapes and sizes, depending on the method of cutting used.

Commercial applications. 

Dried pumpkin is used in a variety of food products, including snacks, soups, bread, and more. It is also used as an ingredient in some dietary supplements and health products.

Cooking and Gastronomy. Dried pumpkin is used as an ingredient in a variety of recipes, including savory dishes, desserts, and as a spice in powdered form.

Beverage Production. Dried pumpkin can be used to infuse beverages and cocktails with a flavorful, spicy, autumnal note.

Pet Food. It can be used as an ingredient in pet foods due to its nutritious properties.

Pharmacy and Health. Dried pumpkin may be utilized in herbal preparations and health supplements due to its beneficial properties.

Crafts. Dried pumpkin can be used in various craft projects, such as decorative creations or components of dried floral arrangements.

Pumpkin (Cucurbita moschata) is a vegetable widely cultivated and cultivated all over the world and belongs to the Cucurbitaceae family.

Cucurbita genus is composed of five major species comprising the majority of pumpkin and squashes –Cucurbita pepo, Cucurbita moschata, Cucurbita maxima, Cucurbita argyrosperma, Cucurbita ficifolia. 

Chemical composition

The fruit flesh is rich in carotenoids, tocopherols, polysaccharides, carbohydrates and minerals which endow pumpkin with medical functions including antidiabetic, antihypertensive, antitumor, antioxidant, immunomodulation, antibacterial, antihypercholesterolemia, intestinal antiparasitia, anti-inflammation and antalgic activities (1).

The seed contains fatty acids (≤64% linoleic acid), specific delta-7-sterols, tocopherols and micronutrients (2).

Potential health benefits

The oral administration of high doses of pumpkin seeds and pumpkin seed oil reduced prostate weight in experimental animal models of prostate growth (3).

Pumpkin seed oil is considered a preventive agent for various pathologies, particularly prostate diseases. These properties are related to its high content of carotenoids and liposoluble vitamins. In this study the carotenoid (lutein and zeaxanthin), vitamin E (α- and γ-tocopherol) and fatty acid contents (4).

This study validates the hypoglycemic and antidiabetic effect of Cucurbita maxima seed extract and therefore this extract could be further explored for development as a new anti-diabetic agent (5).

Pumpkin seed studies

References_______________________________________________________________________

(1) Caili F, Huan S, Quanhong L  A review on pharmacological activities and utilization technologies of pumpkin. Plant Foods Hum Nutr. 2006 Jun; 61(2):73-80.

(2) Strobl M, Patz B, Bracher F: Kürbissamen bei Störungen der Blasenfunktion. DAZ 2004;144:4010-4014.

(3) Vahlensieck W, Theurer C, Pfitzer E, Patz B, Banik N, Engelmann U. Effects of pumpkin seed in men with lower urinary tract symptoms due to benign prostatic hyperplasia in the one-year, randomized, placebo-controlled GRANU study. Urol Int. 2015;94(3):286-95. doi: 10.1159/000362903. Epub 2014 Sep 5.

Gossell-Williams M, Davis A, O'Connor N: Inhibition of testosterone-induced hyperplasia of the prostate of Sprague-Dawley rats by pumpkin seed oil. J Med Food 2006;9:284-286.

Kim SH, Jung KI, Koh JS, Min KO, Cho SY, Kim HW: Lower urinary tract symptoms in benign prostatic hyperplasia patients: orchestrated by chronic prostatic inflammation and prostatic calculi? Urol Int 2013;90:144-149.

(4) Procida G, Stancher B, Cateni F, Zacchigna M. Chemical composition and functional characterisation of commercial pumpkin seed oil.  J Sci Food Agric. 2013 Mar 30;93(5):1035-41. doi: 10.1002/jsfa.5843. Epub 2012 Aug 30.

(5) Kushawaha DK, Yadav M, Chatterji S, Srivastava AK, Watal G. Evidence based study of antidiabetic potential of C. maxima seeds - In vivo.   J Tradit Complement Med. 2017 Jan 17;7(4):466-470. doi: 10.1016/j.jtcme.2016.12.001

Pumpkin, Cucurbita pepo (Cucurbitaceae)

The pumpkin, derived from Cucurbita pepo and belonging to the family Cucurbitaceae, is one of the most widely cultivated and versatile horticultural species. Originating from the Americas, it has been grown for centuries across temperate and warm-temperate regions worldwide. Numerous cultivars exist, selected for culinary use, ornamental purposes, or for the production of edible seeds. Pumpkin is valued for its sweet, carotenoid-rich flesh and for its high agronomic productivity.

Morphologically, Cucurbita pepo exhibits trailing or bushy stems, often equipped with tendrils, along with broad, lobed leaves covered in fine pubescence. The large, funnel-shaped yellow flowers clearly distinguish male from female blossoms, a hallmark of cucurbit species. The fruits show remarkable variability in shape, colour, and size: they may be spherical, elongated, cylindrical, or flattened, with smooth, warty, or striped rinds in shades ranging from green to deep orange-yellow. The inner flesh, thick and succulent, is abundant in carotenoids, responsible for the orange pigmentation in many cultivars.

Ecologically and agronomically, pumpkin thrives in temperate and warm-temperate climates, requiring abundant light, mild temperatures, and well-drained soils rich in organic matter. Its root system is shallow but wide-spreading, benefiting from regular irrigation, especially during flowering and fruit enlargement. Although generally robust, the crop can be susceptible to fungal and viral diseases, requiring careful crop management, particularly in intensive production systems.

From a phytochemical perspective, pumpkin flesh contains significant amounts of carotenoids (notably β-carotene), vitamin C, soluble fibre, simple sugars, and moderate levels of minerals such as potassium and magnesium. Carotenoids impart antioxidant activity and contribute to vitamin A formation in the human body. Its low caloric content makes pumpkin an advantageous ingredient in balanced, energy-controlled diets.

Nutritionally, pumpkin is recognised as a health-promoting and versatile food, offering a combination of fibre, vitamins, and natural antioxidants. Dietary fibre supports intestinal regularity, while the vitamin and carotenoid profile contributes to immune function, cell protection, and visual well-being. Its high water content and low calorie density make pumpkin easy to digest and suitable for a wide range of dietary needs.

Culinarily, pumpkin is extremely versatile and widely used in:
– soups, purées, and creamy dishes;
– fillings for pasta or baked preparations;
– steamed vegetable sides;
– desserts, cakes, and baked goods;
– industrial production of flours and purées.

Botanical classification (APG IV system)

Indicative nutritional values per 100 g (raw fresh pumpkin flesh)

Nutritional considerations

• A low-calorie vegetable due to its high water content.

• Excellent source of carotenoids (especially β-carotene → vitamin A).

• Very low lipid content, with SFA, MUFA, and PUFA present only in trace amounts.

• Suitable for both sweet and savory dishes: soups, purées, risottos, gnocchi, baked goods.

Production process

“Pumpkin” generally refers to several cultivated species of the genus Cucurbita (mainly C. maxima, C. moschata, C. pepo), grown in temperate and subtropical regions. The plants prefer well-drained soils, good water availability and warm conditions, with sowing in spring and harvest in autumn.

Fruits are harvested when the rind is hardened and the stem begins to dry and lignify, indicating physiological maturity. After harvest, pumpkins are cleaned and, in quality-oriented production, often cured for several days to about two weeks in warm, dry, well-ventilated conditions. This curing step helps heal minor skin injuries and improves storage life.

In industrial processing, pumpkins can be: peeled, seeded and cut into cubes for freezing; cooked and concentrated into puree for soups, baby food, fillings and baked goods; or processed into ready-to-use sauces and mixes. Seeds are separated as a by-product and may be used as edible seeds or for pumpkin seed oil.

Applications

Pumpkin is highly versatile in the kitchen:

• In home cooking, it is used in soups, purees, risottos, gnocchi, stuffed pasta, savoury pies and baked side dishes, as well as in sweets (cakes, muffins, pies, jams).

• In the food industry, it appears in ready soups and purees, frozen vegetable mixes, baby foods, ready meals and sweet or savoury bakery products.

• In some traditions it is used in chutneys, relishes and vegetable spreads.

Because of its high water content and relatively low calorie density, pumpkin is well suited to large-volume but low-energy dishes.

In animal feeding, by-products (peel, residual pulp, downgraded fruits) can be used, where permitted, as part of feed or forage.

In cosmetics, pumpkin fruit extracts and pumpkin seed oil are used in products for dry skin, in gentle exfoliating formulations (thanks to sugars and organic acids) and in nourishing body products.

Nutrition & health

Fresh pumpkin has a low energy content: most data place it around 20–40 kcal per 100 g of raw flesh, depending on variety and composition. A typical value often cited is about 25–30 kcal/100 g. It is largely water, with modest amounts of carbohydrates (mainly simple sugars and a small portion of fibre), and very little fat and protein.

Nutritionally, pumpkin is valued as a source of:

• Provitamin A (beta-carotene), especially in deep orange-fleshed varieties.

• Some B vitamins and vitamin C, in variable amounts.

• Potassium and other minerals in moderate quantities.

Within a balanced diet pumpkin can:

• Contribute fibre and micronutrients with limited calorie impact.

• Help create filling, low-energy dishes.

• Provide carotenoids that contribute to overall provitamin A intake.

The overall effect on glycaemic balance is generally favourable when pumpkin is part of balanced meals, although dishes very rich in added sugar or fat (cakes, fried preparations) obviously alter the final nutritional profile.

Portion note
A typical household portion of cooked pumpkin as a side dish or main vegetable component is about 150–200 g of flesh (cooked weight or equivalent raw), adjusted according to the rest of the meal.

Allergens and intolerances

Pumpkin is not listed among the major mandatory allergens in common regulations. True allergy is rare but possible, particularly in people with multiple sensitisation to pollens or to other cucurbits.

Potential issues include:

• Occasional individual allergy or intolerance to pumpkin flesh or seeds.

• Possible cross-reactivity in sensitive individuals with allergies to other Cucurbitaceae (certain squashes, melons, courgettes, cucumbers).

In composite products (soups, ready meals, baked goods), major allergenic risk usually comes from other ingredients (gluten, milk, eggs, soy, nuts), which must always be checked on the label.

Storage and shelf-life

Whole, mature pumpkins with intact rind generally have good keeping quality:

• Store in a cool, dry, well-ventilated place, away from direct sunlight.

• Avoid impacts and wounds that would favour rot.

Under appropriate conditions, some varieties can be stored for several weeks to a few months, depending on species, cultivar and environment.

Cut pumpkin (halves, slices, cubes) should be refrigerated in closed containers or food-grade wrap and used within a few days. Cooked pumpkin (baked, steamed, pureed) should generally be consumed within 2–3 days if kept in the refrigerator.

Pumpkin can also be frozen, after blanching or pre-cooking as cubes or puree, which significantly extends shelf-life.

Safety and regulatory aspects

Pumpkin is regarded as a conventional vegetable and is covered by standard fruit and vegetable safety rules:

• Limits for pesticide residues, heavy metals and other contaminants.

• Hygiene and microbiological quality along the production chain.

• Application of GMP (Good Manufacturing Practices) and HACCP in industrial processing.

Occasionally, cases of pumpkins or squashes with a markedly bitter taste have been reported, due to high levels of cucurbitacins, bitter compounds that can be toxic and cause “toxic squash syndrome”. If pumpkin flesh tastes clearly and strongly bitter, it should not be eaten; bitterness is a key warning sign.

Any nutrition or health claims (e.g. “source of vitamin A”) on processed products must be supported by actual nutrient content and comply with regulations on authorised nutrition and health claims.

Labeling

For fresh produce, labels or display cards typically state:

• The product name (e.g. “pumpkin” plus cultivar name where relevant).

• Country of origin.

• Quality class or category, where required.

In processed products (soups, purees, ready meals, frozen mixes, baby food), the ingredient will appear as “pumpkin” or under specific terms such as “pumpkin puree”, listed in descending order of weight. A nutrition declaration is mandatory, and any allergens present in the composite product must be emphasised according to local rules.

In cosmetics, pumpkin-derived ingredients appear under INCI names such as Cucurbita Pepo Fruit Extract, Cucurbita Pepo Fruit Juice or similar, depending on the extract type.

Main INCI functions (cosmetics)

In cosmetics, pumpkin-derived ingredients (especially fruit extracts and seed oil) can play roles such as:

• Emollient / skin conditioning (particularly pumpkin seed oil).

• Nourishing and soothing in body products for dry or dehydrated skin.

• Components of mild exfoliating formulations, in combination with other actives, thanks to the presence of sugars and organic acids in fruit-based extracts.

Conclusion

Pumpkin is a low-calorie vegetable with high water content and a meaningful contribution of carotenoids, fibre and certain minerals, making it especially suitable for dishes that are voluminous yet relatively light. Its culinary versatility spans savoury and sweet preparations, both in home cooking and industrial products, and it fits easily into omnivorous, vegetarian and vegan eating patterns.

Good control of cultivation, harvest timing, curing, storage and processing helps maintain desirable sensory and nutritional qualities while minimising waste and spoilage. When included as part of a varied diet, pumpkin is a valuable way to increase vegetable intake, adding colour, flavour and micronutrients with limited energy impact.

Studies

The fruit flesh is rich in carotenoids, tocopherols, polysaccharides, carbohydrates and minerals which endow pumpkin with medical functions including antidiabetic, antihypertensive, antitumor, antioxidant, immunomodulation, antibacterial, antihypercholesterolemia, intestinal antiparasitia, anti-inflammation and antalgic activities (1).

The seed contains fatty acids (≤64% linoleic acid), specific delta-7-sterols, tocopherols and micronutrients (2).

Potential health benefits

The oral administration of high doses of pumpkin seeds and pumpkin seed oil reduced prostate weight in experimental animal models of prostate growth (3).

Pumpkin seed oil is considered a preventive agent for various pathologies, particularly prostate diseases. These properties are related to its high content of carotenoids and liposoluble vitamins. In this study the carotenoid (lutein and zeaxanthin), vitamin E (α- and γ-tocopherol) and fatty acid contents (4).

This study validates the hypoglycemic and antidiabetic effect of Cucurbita maxima seed extract and therefore this extract could be further explored for development as a new anti-diabetic agent (5).

Pumpkin seed studies

Mini-glossary

• SFA – Saturated fatty acids; fats that, when consumed in excess, are associated with higher LDL (“bad”) cholesterol and increased cardiovascular risk.

• MUFA – Monounsaturated fatty acids; fats that can improve blood lipid profiles when they replace saturated fats in the diet.

• PUFA – Polyunsaturated fatty acids; include omega-3 and omega-6 families, important for cell membranes, inflammation modulation and cardiovascular health.

• INCI – International Nomenclature of Cosmetic Ingredients; the international system used to name cosmetic ingredients on product labels.

References_______________________________________________________________________

(1) Caili F, Huan S, Quanhong L  A review on pharmacological activities and utilization technologies of pumpkin. Plant Foods Hum Nutr. 2006 Jun; 61(2):73-80.

Abstract. Dietary plants and herbal preparations have been traditionally used as medicine in developing countries and obtained a resurgence of use in the United States and Europe. Research carried out in last few decades has validated several such claims of use of traditional medicine plants. Popularity of pumpkin in various systems of traditional medicine for several ailments (antidiabetic, antihypertensive, antitumor, immunomodulation, antibacterial, antihypercholesterolemia, intestinal antiparasitia, antiinflammation, antalgic) focused the investigators' attention on this plant. Considerable evidence from several epidemiological studies concerning bioactivities leads have stimulated a number of animal model, cell culture studies and clinical trials designed to test this pharmacological actions. In addition, it was found that technologies such as germination and fermentation could reduce antinutritional materials and affect the pharmacological activities of pumpkin. This review will focus on the main medicinal properties and technologies of pumpkin, and point out areas for future research to further elucidate mechanisms whereby this compound may reduce disease risk.

(2) Strobl M, Patz B, Bracher F: Kürbissamen bei Störungen der Blasenfunktion. DAZ 2004;144:4010-4014.

(3) Vahlensieck W, Theurer C, Pfitzer E, Patz B, Banik N, Engelmann U. Effects of pumpkin seed in men with lower urinary tract symptoms due to benign prostatic hyperplasia in the one-year, randomized, placebo-controlled GRANU study. Urol Int. 2015;94(3):286-95. doi: 10.1159/000362903. Epub 2014 Sep 5.

Gossell-Williams M, Davis A, O'Connor N: Inhibition of testosterone-induced hyperplasia of the prostate of Sprague-Dawley rats by pumpkin seed oil. J Med Food 2006;9:284-286.

Abstract. The oil from the pumpkin (Cucurbita pepo) seed is claimed to be useful in the management of benign prostatic hyperplasia. This investigation seeks to examine the effect of pumpkin seed oil on testosterone-induced hyperplasia of the prostate of rats. Hyperplasia was induced by subcutaneous administration of testosterone (0.3 mg/100 g of body weight) for 20 days. Simultaneous oral administration of either pumpkin seed oil (2.0 and 4.0 mg/100 g of body weight) or corn oil (vehicle) was also given for 20 days. The weights of the rats were recorded weekly, and the influence of testosterone and pumpkin seed oil on the weight gain of the rats was examined. On day 21, rats were sacrificed, and the prostate was removed, cleaned, and weighed. The prostate size ratio (prostate weight/rat body weight) was then calculated. Neither testosterone nor pumpkin seed oil had any significant influence on the weight gain of the rats. Testosterone significantly increased prostate size ratio (P < .05), and this induced increase was inhibited in rats fed with pumpkin seed oil at 2.0 mg/100 g of body weight. The protective effect of pumpkin seed oil was significant at the higher pumpkin seed oil dose (P < .02). We conclude pumpkin seed oil can inhibit testosterone-induced hyperplasia of the prostate and therefore may be beneficial in the management of benign prostatic hyperplasia.

Kim SH, Jung KI, Koh JS, Min KO, Cho SY, Kim HW: Lower urinary tract symptoms in benign prostatic hyperplasia patients: orchestrated by chronic prostatic inflammation and prostatic calculi? Urol Int 2013;90:144-149.  DOI: 10.1159/000342643

(4) Procida G, Stancher B, Cateni F, Zacchigna M. Chemical composition and functional characterisation of commercial pumpkin seed oil.  J Sci Food Agric. 2013 Mar 30;93(5):1035-41. doi: 10.1002/jsfa.5843. Epub 2012 Aug 30.

(5) Kushawaha DK, Yadav M, Chatterji S, Srivastava AK, Watal G. Evidence based study of antidiabetic potential of C. maxima seeds - In vivo.   J Tradit Complement Med. 2017 Jan 17;7(4):466-470. doi: 10.1016/j.jtcme.2016.12.001

Puffed quinoa is a food product obtained from Quinoa (Chenopodium Quinoa, Willd) is an annual plant that belongs to the Chenopodiaceae family. The Chenopodium genus includes about 150 species, including Chenopodium Quinoa, an important crop of high nutritional value. It grows at many different altitudes, from sea level to the height of Bolivian Altiplano at around 4,000 m above sea level and under various climate conditions. Quinoa has a broad genetic diversity, which allows it to adapt to various tough environments, including highlands, salinity, drought, and frost(1). Widely cultivated in Bolivia, Peru and Chile.

Chemical composition

The total amount of phenolic acids varies from 16.8 to 59.7 mg/100 g and the proportion of soluble phenolic acids varies from 7% to 61%. The phenolic acid content in Andean crops is low compared with common cereals like wheat and rye, but is similar to levels found in oat, barley, corn and rice. The flavonoid content of quinoa and kañiwa is exceptionally high, varying from 36.2 to 144.3 mg/100 g (2).

Potential health benefits

Quinoa protein has a balanced amino acid composition being rich in essential amino acids such as lysine (5.1–6.4%) and methionine (0.4–3.1%). The total dietary fiber content of quinoa grains (average of 4.1%) compares favorably with those of wheat (2.7%) and corn (1.7%). Moreover, the amounts of calcium, magnesium, iron, and phosphorus (especially calcium and iron) are significantly higher than in most other cereals. Quinoa oil is rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids such as linoleic and linolenic acid, which have the potential to help in degenerative diseases such as cardiovascular diseases, cancer, inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. Quinoa grains have high concentrations of polyphenols and antioxidants such as α‐ and γ‐tocopherol—compounds suggested to have anticarcinogenic and anti‐inflammatory activities. They are also a good source of vitamin C, E, and folic acid (3).

Increasing the utilisation of plant proteins is needed to support the production of protein-rich foods that could replace animal proteins in the human diet so as to reduce the strain that intensive animal husbandry poses to the environment. Lupins, quinoa and hempseed are significant sources of energy, high quality proteins, fibre, vitamins and minerals. In addition, they contain compounds such as polyphenols and bioactive peptides that can increase the nutritional value of these plants. From the nutritional standpoint, the right combination of plant proteins can supply sufficient amounts of essential amino acids for human requirements. This review aims at providing an overview of the current knowledge of the nutritional properties, beneficial and non-nutritive compounds, storage proteins, and potential health benefits of lupins, quinoa and hempseed (4).

Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) and amaranth (Amaranthus cruentus L.) are pseudocereal grains rich in both macronutrients and micronutrients including vitamins and minerals. The proteins are particularly of high nutritional quality due to the outstanding balance of essential amino acids. However, recent research strongly suggests that nonessential nutrients such as phytochemicals of quinoa and amaranth may also have potential health beneficial effects. This review focuses on the phytochemical composition of quinoa and amaranth seeds, the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities of hydrophilic (e.g. phenolics, betacyanins) and lipophilic (e.g. fatty acids, tocopherols, and carotenoids) nutrients, and how these contribute to the potential health benefits, especially in lowering the risk of the oxidative stress related diseases e.g. cancer, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and obesity (5).

The good amount of essential fatty acids present in Quinoa have been shown to mitigate degradation, dehydration and inflammation of epidermal tissues by virtue of their antioxidant properties (6). Quinoa oil and extract are often included in sunscreen products as the polyphenols contained in Quinoa are able to absorb UV radiation (7).

Quinoa studies

References________________________________________________________________________

(1) Jacobson S. The worldwide potential for quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) Food Rev Int. 2003;19:167–177. doi: 10.1081/FRI-120018883.

(2)  Repo-Carrasco-Valencia R, Hellström JK, Pihlava JM, Mattila PH. Flavonoids and other phenolic compounds in Andean indigenous grains: quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa), kaniwa (Chenopodium pallidicaule) and kiwicha (Amaranthus caudatus) Food Chem. 2010;120:128–133. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2009.09.087.

(3) Development of a fermented quinoa-based beverage.
Ludena Urquizo FE, García Torres SM, Tolonen T, Jaakkola M, Pena-Niebuhr MG, von Wright A, Repo-Carrasco-Valencia R, Korhonen H, Plumed-Ferrer C.
Food Sci Nutr. 2016 Oct 28;5(3):602-608. doi: 10.1002/fsn3.436. 

(4) Bioactivities of alternative protein sources and their potential health benefits.
Pihlanto A, Mattila P, Mäkinen S, Pajari AM.
Food Funct. 2017 Oct 18;8(10):3443-3458. doi: 10.1039/c7fo00302a. Review.

(5) Phytochemicals in quinoa and amaranth grains and their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and potential health beneficial effects: a review.
Tang Y, Tsao R.
Mol Nutr Food Res. 2017 Jul;61(7). doi: 10.1002/mnfr.201600767. 

(6) McCusker MM, Grant-Kels JM. Healing fats of the skin: the structural and immunologic roles of the omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids. Clin Dermatol. 2010 Jul-Aug;28(4):440-51. doi: 10.1016/j.clindermatol.2010.03.020.

(7) Nichols JA, Katiyar SK. Skin photoprotection by natural polyphenols: anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and DNA repair mechanisms. Arch Dermatol Res. 2010 Mar;302(2):71-83. doi: 10.1007/s00403-009-1001-3. 

The ash tree is the common name for several species of the genus Fraxinus, belonging to the botanical family Oleaceae. In Europe, and particularly in Italy, the most widespread species are Fraxinus excelsior (European ash), Fraxinus ornus (manna ash) and Fraxinus angustifolia (narrow-leaved ash). These are long-lived, deciduous trees that can reach from about 10 up to 30 meters in height, depending on the species and growing conditions. 

Botanical description
Ash trees typically show:

• A broad, light, airy crown, with flexible, well-spaced branches.

• Opposite, compound leaves, made up of several lanceolate leaflets with smooth or slightly toothed margins.

• Small, inconspicuous flowers, usually without petals, grouped in panicles that appear in spring, often before the leaves.

• Fruits called samaras, elongated winged achenes that are easily carried by the wind and help seed dispersal.

The trunk is generally straight, with smooth grey bark in younger trees that becomes fissured and more deeply furrowed with age. Ash wood is well known for being elastic, tough and relatively easy to work, which is why it has long been valued in carpentry.

Food-related and traditional uses
Although ash is not a common “food ingredient” in the strict sense, some parts of the tree have specific uses:

• The manna ash (Fraxinus ornus) produces manna, a sweet exudate that flows naturally or after incision of the trunk. Traditionally dried and collected as flakes or stalactite-like pieces, it has been used as a natural sweetener, in herbal teas and in traditional herbal preparations.

• The leaves of some species, when dried, can be used to prepare herbal infusions with a slightly bitter, herbaceous taste.

• In the past, young shoots and tender leaves were sometimes eaten in small amounts in rural areas, for example boiled or added to simple soups.

• In some traditional drinks, leaves or bark were fermented or macerated, although such uses are now quite rare.

Other uses and cultural relevance
Ash has a strong presence in European tradition:

• The wood, being elastic and shock-resistant, is widely used for tool handles, furniture, sporting goods (such as handles for bats and other equipment), parts of musical instruments and floorings.

• In traditional herbalism, bark and leaves have been used in various folk remedies and herbal teas.

• In several European mythologies the ash tree is a symbolic species of great importance; in Norse mythology, for example, an ash (Yggdrasill) represents the world tree, the axis of the universe.

Overall, ash is one of the most characteristic tree species of European woodlands, appreciated both for the elegance of its appearance and for the many traditional and craft uses that have linked it to rural life for centuries.

Botanical classification

• Common name: ash tree, common ash

• Botanical name: Fraxinus excelsior

• Botanical family: Oleaceae

• Native range: Europe and the Caucasus

• Habit: deciduous tree with a wide, light crown

• Height: 20–35 m (up to 40 m in optimal conditions)

• Lifespan: perennial, long-lived

Cultivation and growth conditions

Climate

• Prefers temperate and humid climates.

• Tolerates cold winters very well.

• Not well suited to very hot, arid climates.

Exposure

• Grows well in full sun or light partial shade.

• Prefers bright sites to develop a well-balanced crown.

Soil

• Thrives in soils that are:

  • deep,

  • fresh and moist,

  • rich in organic matter,

  • well drained.

• Tolerates calcareous soils.

• Does not like very compact soils or those prone to waterlogging.

Irrigation

• Once established in open ground, usually needs little additional watering.

• In the first years after planting:

  • water regularly during dry periods.

• Mature trees tolerate moderate summer drought, but grow best with soil that stays slightly moist.

Temperature

• Very hardy, withstands temperatures well below freezing.

• Can suffer from prolonged summer drought stress in very hot regions.

Fertilization

• Does not require heavy fertilization.

• A yearly application of:

  • compost or other organic matter around the base,

  • and, in poor soils, a balanced slow-release fertilizer,
    can support healthy growth.

Crop care

• Perform light formative pruning in the early years to create a strong framework.

• Later on, pruning is limited to:

  • removing dead, damaged or crossing branches,

  • slightly thinning the crown if it becomes too dense.

• Monitor for fungal diseases and insects (leaf miners, aphids, etc.).

• Pay attention to root and trunk rots in very wet, poorly drained soils.

Harvest

• Leaves and bark are traditionally harvested in spring or early summer for herbal use.

• Seeds ripen in autumn, grouped in the characteristic hanging samaras.

Propagation

• By seed:

  • seeds need a cold stratification period (2–3 months) to improve germination;

  • sow in autumn or spring.

• By cuttings: possible but often has a low success rate.

• By suckers: in some cases the tree produces basal shoots that can be separated and replanted.

Studies

Mainly used for furniture construction it has some interesting health properties found in clinical studies: 

• the aqueous extract has shown hypotensive and diuretic actions (1)
• the seed and fruit extract may be useful in metabolic disorders related to impaired glucose tolerance, obesity, insulin resistance and inflammatory status, particularly in the elderly (2)
• the seed extract has the ability to regulate blood glucose and insulinemia, demonstrating anti-obesity effects (3)

Overall, Fraxinus excelsior contains a wide range of chemical components including coumarins, secoiridoids, phenylethanoids, flavonoids and lignans with anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, antimicrobial, antioxidant, photodynamic damage prevention, liver protection, diuretic and anti-allergic activities (4). 

In cosmetics, Ash bark extract is used, which is credited with skin regenerating properties due to its antioxidant characteristics.

In the last two decades, ash trees have been dying out almost everywhere in their natural habitat and particularly in Europe due to the fungus Hymenoscyphus fraxineus, transmitted by wind-borne spores, which can, however, be combated by various methods including fungal endophytes or pre-priming of defence responses.

References______________________________________________________________________

(1) Eddouks M, Maghrani M, Zeggwagh NA, Haloui M, Michel JB. Fraxinus excelsior L. evokes a hypotensive action in normal and spontaneously hypertensive rats. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005 May 13;99(1):49-54. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2005.01.050. 

(2) Zulet MA, Navas-Carretero S, Lara y Sánchez D, Abete I, Flanagan J, Issaly N, Fança-Berthon P, Bily A, Roller M, Martinez JA. A Fraxinus excelsior L. seeds/fruits extract benefits glucose homeostasis and adiposity related markers in elderly overweight/obese subjects: a longitudinal, randomized, crossover, double-blind, placebo-controlled nutritional intervention study. Phytomedicine. 2014 Sep 15;21(10):1162-9. doi: 10.1016/j.phymed.2014.04.027.

(3) Ibarra A, Bai N, He K, Bily A, Cases J, Roller M, Sang S. Fraxinus excelsior seed extract FraxiPure™ limits weight gains and hyperglycemia in high-fat diet-induced obese mice. Phytomedicine. 2011 Apr 15;18(6):479-85. doi: 10.1016/j.phymed.2010.09.010. 

(4) Kostova I, Iossifova T. Chemical components of Fraxinus species. Fitoterapia. 2007 Feb;78(2):85-106. doi: 10.1016/j.fitote.2006.08.002. 

Dietary fluted pumpkin seeds induce reversible oligospermia and androgen insufficiency in adult rats.
Njoku RC, Abarikwu SO, Uwakwe AA, Mgbudom-Okah CJ, Ezirim CY.
Syst Biol Reprod Med. 2019 May 13:1-14. doi: 10.1080/19396368.2019.1612482.

Trans-perineal pumpkin seed oil phonophoresis as an adjunctive treatment for chronic nonbacterial prostatitis.
Tantawy SA, Elgohary HM, Kamel DM.
Res Rep Urol. 2018 Sep 18;10:95-101. doi: 10.2147/RRU.S167896.

Optimization of Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction and Structural Characterization of the Polysaccharide from Pumpkin (Cucurbita moschata) Seeds.
Wang L, Cheng L, Liu F, Li T, Yu Z, Xu Y, Yang Y.
Molecules. 2018 May 18;23(5). pii: E1207. doi: 10.3390/molecules23051207.

Medicinal bioactivites and allergenic properties of pumpkin seeds: review upon a pediatric food anaphylaxis case report.
Chatain C, Pin I, Pralong P, Jacquier JP, Leccia MT.
Eur Ann Allergy Clin Immunol. 2017 Nov;49(6):244-251. doi: 10.23822/EurAnnACI.1764-1489.19. Review.

Roasting pumpkin seeds and changes in the composition and oxidative stability of cold-pressed oils.
Raczyk M, Siger A, Radziejewska-Kubzdela E, Ratusz K, Rudzińska M.
Acta Sci Pol Technol Aliment. 2017 Jul-Sep;16(3):293-301. doi: 10.17306/J.AFS.0494.

Anti obese potential of Cucurbita maxima seeds oil: effect on lipid profile and histoarchitecture in high fat diet induced obese rats.
Kalaivani A, Sathibabu Uddandrao VV, Brahmanaidu P, Saravanan G, Nivedha PR, Tamilmani P, Swapna K, Vadivukkarasi S.
Nat Prod Res. 2018 Dec;32(24):2950-2953. doi: 10.1080/14786419.2017.1389939.

Edible seeds from Cucurbitaceae family as potential functional foods: Immense promises, few concerns.
Patel S, Rauf A.
Biomed Pharmacother. 2017 Jul;91:330-337. doi: 10.1016/j.biopha.2017.04.090.

Antioxidative activities and phenolic compounds of pumpkin (Cucurbita pepo) seeds and amaranth (Amaranthus caudatus) grain extracts.
Peiretti PG, Meineri G, Gai F, Longato E, Amarowicz R.
Nat Prod Res. 2017 Sep;31(18):2178-2182. doi: 10.1080/14786419.2017.1278597.

Pumpkin seeds, Cucurbita pepo (Cucurbitaceae) 

Pumpkin seeds, derived from Cucurbita pepo, are the dry fruits of one of the most widely cultivated cucurbit species. Native to the Americas and belonging to the family Cucurbitaceae, the plant is valued not only for its horticultural varieties but also for its edible seeds, which are nutritionally dense and rich in bioactive compounds. Pumpkin seeds may be consumed whole, hulled, or processed into pumpkin seed oil, a specialty product particularly appreciated in parts of Central Europe.

Morphologically, pumpkin seeds are flattened achenes, oval to elliptical in shape, with a seed coat ranging from beige to olive green, the latter typical of hull-less varieties. The seed coat contains mucilage and phenolic substances that offer protection, while the interior endosperm is rich in oily reserves, including lipids and essential nutrients.

Cucurbita pepo grows well in temperate to warm-temperate climates, preferring well-drained soils with good organic matter content. The plant features sprawling or bush-like stems, broad lobed leaves, and the characteristic yellow cucurbit flowers. Seed yield varies widely depending on cultivar, agronomic practices, and fruit maturity stage.

Phytochemically, pumpkin seeds are renowned for their high content of unsaturated fatty acids, particularly linoleic acid (omega-6) and oleic acid, along with smaller amounts of α-linolenic acid. They are a notable source of phytosterols, which may support cholesterol metabolism, and tocopherols (vitamin E) with antioxidant activity. Additional components include high-quality plant proteins, dietary fibre, magnesium, zinc, phosphorus, and a variety of peptides and secondary metabolites under investigation for specific physiological effects.

Nutritionally, pumpkin seeds are regarded as a functional food due to their combination of healthy lipids, antioxidants, and essential micronutrients. Research suggests potential benefits for male urinary function, cardiovascular well-being, and inflammation modulation, although clinical evidence varies depending on dosage, extract type, and consumption method. Given their high caloric density, moderate portion sizes are recommended.

Culinarily, pumpkin seeds are highly versatile:
– consumed roasted or salted as snacks;
– incorporated into breads, crackers, and baked goods;
– added to muesli, salads, or plant-based dishes;
– used for the production of pumpkin seed oil, known for its deep green colour and intense flavour.

Pumpkin seed oil, rich in unsaturated fatty acids and antioxidant compounds, is best used raw, as it is sensitive to oxidation and unsuitable for high-temperature cooking.

Indicative nutritional values per 100 g (hulled, dried pumpkin seeds)

Average values based on European and international composition tables; they may vary depending on species (Cucurbita pepo, C. maxima, C. moschata), cultivar, and drying method.

Note on the lipid profile

• Pumpkin seeds contain a high proportion of lipids with a favorable balance of MUFA and PUFA.

• Saturated fatty acids SFA are moderately present but lower relative to total lipids when compared with many animal sources.

• The predominance of PUFA, especially linoleic acid, enhances the nutritional profile.

Nutritional considerations

• Excellent source of plant protein, among the richest in the seed and nut category.

• Very rich in magnesium, phosphorus, zinc, and iron, supporting energy metabolism, immune function, and muscle health.

• Contain phytosterols and phenolic antioxidants.

• Typical serving size: 15–30 g per day, suitable as a snack or added to salads, muesli, or baked goods.

Production process

Pumpkin seeds are obtained as a by-product of pumpkin processing. After the pumpkins are cut, the seeds are separated from the pulp, usually by mechanical systems combined with water washing to remove stringy tissue and debris. The clean seeds are then sorted to eliminate damaged seeds and foreign material.

For whole seeds intended for direct consumption, the cleaned seeds are dried with controlled warm air until they reach a safe moisture level for storage. Depending on the product, they may be marketed raw or roasted, with or without shell, plain or salted/flavoured.

For oil production, hulled pumpkin seeds are milled and subjected to mechanical pressing to obtain virgin pumpkin seed oil, or to solvent extraction in more industrial settings, followed by refining steps such as degumming, neutralisation, bleaching and deodorisation. Press cakes and extraction meals are often recovered as protein-rich ingredients for feed.

Applications

In human food, pumpkin seeds are used in many ways: eaten as a snack (roasted, salted or unsalted), incorporated into bread, crackers, breakfast cereals, muesli, granola, bars, salads, soups and vegetable dishes, or processed into seed butters/spreads.

Pumpkin seed oil is used as a cold condiment (notably in Central European cuisines) and as an ingredient in dressings, sauces and certain baked goods.

In animal nutrition, seeds and press cakes can be included in some feed formulations to enhance protein and unsaturated fat content.

In cosmetics, pumpkin seed oil appears in body creams, lotions, massage oils and hair products, particularly aimed at dry skin or dry/damaged hair.

Nutrition & health

Pumpkin seeds are a nutrient-dense, energy-dense food.

Per 100 g of hulled, dried seeds (average values from several databases):

• Energy: about 550–580 kcal (≈ 560 kcal/100 g)

• Total fat: ~49 g

• Protein: ~30 g

• Carbohydrates: ~10–15 g

• Dietary fibre: ~5–7 g

The fat fraction is dominated by unsaturated fatty acids (mainly linoleic and oleic acids), with a smaller saturated component. Pumpkin seeds are also good sources of magnesium, zinc, iron, manganese, phosphorus, potassium and copper, and provide B-group vitamins and vitamin E (especially in the oil).

This composition makes pumpkin seeds interesting for:

• Supporting protein intake, particularly in plant-oriented diets.

• Contributing to magnesium and zinc intake, important for muscle function, nervous system, immune function and metabolic processes.

• Enhancing satiety, thanks to the combination of protein, fat and fibre.

At the same time, because of their high caloric density, attention to portion size is essential, especially in weight-control or low-calorie diets.

Portion note
For everyday use as a snack or topping, a practical portion is around 20–30 g of hulled seeds (about 2–3 tablespoons). This provides useful nutrients without an excessive calorie load when integrated into a balanced diet.

Allergens and intolerances

Pumpkin seeds are not among the major mandatory allergens in common regulations (e.g., EU lists), but:

• Individual allergies to pumpkin seeds or pumpkin seed oil do exist and can cause cutaneous or gastrointestinal symptoms.

• Some people with multiple seed or nut allergies may show cross-reactivity, so caution is advisable case by case.

In composite products (bars, breads, mixed snacks), most allergenic risk typically comes from other ingredients such as gluten-containing cereals, soy, milk or tree nuts. People with known food allergies should always check the full ingredient list and, when in doubt, seek medical advice.

Storage and shelf-life

Because pumpkin seeds are rich in unsaturated fats, they are prone to oxidative rancidity if poorly stored.

• Store seeds in a cool, dry place, protected from light and heat.

• Use well-closed packs or jars to limit oxygen and moisture uptake.

• In warm climates, keeping opened packs in the refrigerator can help preserve quality.

Under suitable conditions, packaged dry seeds generally have a shelf-life of about 9–12 months (or longer, depending on product specifications).

Pumpkin seed oil should be stored in dark, tightly closed bottles, away from heat; once opened, it is best used within a few months to maintain aroma and oxidative quality.

Safety and regulatory aspects

Pumpkin seeds and pumpkin seed oil are traditional food ingredients and must comply with general food legislation concerning:

• Limits for contaminants (heavy metals, mycotoxins, pesticide residues).

• Microbiological quality and hygienic processing conditions.

• Application of HACCP (Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points) and GMP (Good Manufacturing Practices) along the production chain.

Any nutrition or health claims (e.g. “source of magnesium”, “high in zinc”) must respect the relevant regulations on authorised nutrition and health claims and be justified by actual nutrient content per portion.

Labeling

On food products, pumpkin seeds appear in ingredient lists as, for example:

• “pumpkin seeds”, sometimes with additional descriptors such as “roasted”, “salted”, “hulled” or “shelled”.

Retail packaging must provide:

• A nutrition declaration (including energy in kJ and kcal per 100 g and, when applicable, per portion).

• Clear indication of any allergens present in the finished product.

• Details such as origin and processing (e.g. “roasted”, “unsalted”) when required by local rules.

In cosmetics, pumpkin seed oil is usually listed under the INCI name Cucurbita Pepo Seed Oil.

Main INCI functions (cosmetics)

In cosmetic formulations, pumpkin seed oil is mainly used as:

• Emollient / skin conditioning agent: helps soften, smooth and nourish the skin, especially in products for dry or mature skin.

• Hair conditioning agent: improves hair softness and feel in hair and scalp products, often combined with other plant oils.

• Lipid-replenishing component: contributes to the oil phase structure of emulsions, influencing texture, spreadability and after-feel.

Conclusion

Pumpkin seeds are an energy-dense but nutritionally rich food, supplying unsaturated fats, high-quality plant protein, fibre and key minerals such as magnesium and zinc. In moderate portions they can be a valuable addition to an overall balanced diet, especially as a replacement for less nutrient-dense snacks.

Pumpkin seed oil extends their use into both culinary and cosmetic applications. As with all fat-rich ingredients, appropriate portion control, storage conditions and quality assurance along the production chain are essential to fully benefit from their properties without undesirable effects from excess calories or oxidation.

Studies

The fruit flesh is rich in carotenoids, tocopherols, polysaccharides, carbohydrates and minerals which endow pumpkin with medical functions including antidiabetic, antihypertensive, antitumor, antioxidant, immunomodulation, antibacterial, antihypercholesterolemia, intestinal antiparasitia, anti-inflammation and antalgic activities (1).

The seed contains fatty acids (≤64% linoleic acid), specific delta-7-sterols, tocopherols and micronutrients (2).

The oral administration of high doses of pumpkin seeds and pumpkin seed oil reduced prostate weight in experimental animal models of prostate growth (3).

Pumpkin seed oil is considered a preventive agent for various pathologies, particularly prostate diseases. These properties are related to its high content of carotenoids and liposoluble vitamins. In this study the carotenoid (lutein and zeaxanthin), vitamin E (α- and γ-tocopherol) and fatty acid contents (4).

This study validates the hypoglycemic and antidiabetic effect of Cucurbita maxima seed extract and therefore this extract could be further explored for development as a new anti-diabetic agent (5).

Pumpkin seed studies

References_______________________________________________________________________

(1) Caili F, Huan S, Quanhong L  A review on pharmacological activities and utilization technologies of pumpkin. Plant Foods Hum Nutr. 2006 Jun; 61(2):73-80.

Abstract. Dietary plants and herbal preparations have been traditionally used as medicine in developing countries and obtained a resurgence of use in the United States and Europe. Research carried out in last few decades has validated several such claims of use of traditional medicine plants. Popularity of pumpkin in various systems of traditional medicine for several ailments (antidiabetic, antihypertensive, antitumor, immunomodulation, antibacterial, antihypercholesterolemia, intestinal antiparasitia, antiinflammation, antalgic) focused the investigators' attention on this plant. Considerable evidence from several epidemiological studies concerning bioactivities leads have stimulated a number of animal model, cell culture studies and clinical trials designed to test this pharmacological actions. In addition, it was found that technologies such as germination and fermentation could reduce antinutritional materials and affect the pharmacological activities of pumpkin. This review will focus on the main medicinal properties and technologies of pumpkin, and point out areas for future research to further elucidate mechanisms whereby this compound may reduce disease risk.

(2) Strobl M, Patz B, Bracher F: Kürbissamen bei Störungen der Blasenfunktion. DAZ 2004;144:4010-4014.

(3) Vahlensieck W, Theurer C, Pfitzer E, Patz B, Banik N, Engelmann U. Effects of pumpkin seed in men with lower urinary tract symptoms due to benign prostatic hyperplasia in the one-year, randomized, placebo-controlled GRANU study. Urol Int. 2015;94(3):286-95. doi: 10.1159/000362903. Epub 2014 Sep 5.

Gossell-Williams M, Davis A, O'Connor N: Inhibition of testosterone-induced hyperplasia of the prostate of Sprague-Dawley rats by pumpkin seed oil. J Med Food 2006;9:284-286.

Abstract. The oil from the pumpkin (Cucurbita pepo) seed is claimed to be useful in the management of benign prostatic hyperplasia. This investigation seeks to examine the effect of pumpkin seed oil on testosterone-induced hyperplasia of the prostate of rats. Hyperplasia was induced by subcutaneous administration of testosterone (0.3 mg/100 g of body weight) for 20 days. Simultaneous oral administration of either pumpkin seed oil (2.0 and 4.0 mg/100 g of body weight) or corn oil (vehicle) was also given for 20 days. The weights of the rats were recorded weekly, and the influence of testosterone and pumpkin seed oil on the weight gain of the rats was examined. On day 21, rats were sacrificed, and the prostate was removed, cleaned, and weighed. The prostate size ratio (prostate weight/rat body weight) was then calculated. Neither testosterone nor pumpkin seed oil had any significant influence on the weight gain of the rats. Testosterone significantly increased prostate size ratio (P < .05), and this induced increase was inhibited in rats fed with pumpkin seed oil at 2.0 mg/100 g of body weight. The protective effect of pumpkin seed oil was significant at the higher pumpkin seed oil dose (P < .02). We conclude pumpkin seed oil can inhibit testosterone-induced hyperplasia of the prostate and therefore may be beneficial in the management of benign prostatic hyperplasia.

Kim SH, Jung KI, Koh JS, Min KO, Cho SY, Kim HW: Lower urinary tract symptoms in benign prostatic hyperplasia patients: orchestrated by chronic prostatic inflammation and prostatic calculi? Urol Int 2013;90:144-149.

(4) Procida G, Stancher B, Cateni F, Zacchigna M. Chemical composition and functional characterisation of commercial pumpkin seed oil.  J Sci Food Agric. 2013 Mar 30;93(5):1035-41. doi: 10.1002/jsfa.5843. Epub 2012 Aug 30.

(5) Kushawaha DK, Yadav M, Chatterji S, Srivastava AK, Watal G. Evidence based study of antidiabetic potential of C. maxima seeds - In vivo.   J Tradit Complement Med. 2017 Jan 17;7(4):466-470. doi: 10.1016/j.jtcme.2016.12.001

Abstract. Objective: In vitro antidiabetic efficacy of Cucurbita maxima seed extract (CMSE) has already been studied in our previous findings. Thus, in order to validate these findings in biological system, in vivo antidiabetic activity of aqueous extract was investigated in normal as well as diabetic experimental models. Methods: Variable doses of extract were administered orally to normal and STZ induced mild diabetic rats during fasting blood glucose (FBG) and glucose tolerance test (GTT) studies. In order to determine the extract's antidiabetic potential long-term FBG and post prandial glucose (PPG) studies were also carried out. Results: Most effective dose of 200 mg kg-1 of CMSE decreases the blood glucose level (BGL) in normal rats by 29.02% at 6 h during FBG studies and 23.23% at 3 h during GTT. However, the maximum reduction observed in BGL of mild diabetic rats during GTT the same interval of time was 26.15%. Moreover, in case of severely diabetic rats a significant reduction of 39.33% was observed in FBG levels whereas, in case of positive control, rats treated with 2.5 mg kg-1 of glipizide, a fall of 42.9% in FBG levels was observed after 28 days. Results of PPG level also showed a fall of 33.20% in severely diabetic rats as compared to the positive control showing a fall of 44.2% at the end of the 28 days. Conclusion: Thus, the present study validate the hypoglycemic and antidiabetic effect of CMSE and hence this extract could be explored further for developing as a novel antidiabetic agent.

El Hazzam K, Hafsa J, Sobeh M, et al. An Insight into Saponins from Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd): A Review. Molecules. 2020;25(5):E1059. Published 2020 Feb 27. doi:10.3390/molecules25051059

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Physicochemical characterization of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) flour and isolated starch.
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