Table salt

Table salt consists primarily of sodium chloride (NaCl) and is used to confer salinity, modulate technological reactions (fermentation, protein gelation), and improve preservation by lowering product aw. Main sources are sea salt (solar evaporation), rock salt (mined halite), and vacuum salt crystallized from purified brine.

Caloric value (100 g)
Approximately 0 kcal/100 g (inorganic, no metabolizable energy).

Key constituents
High-purity NaCl typically 97–99.9% depending on source and refinement.
Added iodine in iodized salts (as KI or KIO₃; commonly 20–40 mg I/kg).
Approved anti-caking agents at trace levels: E535/E536 (ferrocyanides), E551 (silicon dioxide), E552 (calcium silicate).
Low residual moisture; trace minerals (K, Mg, Ca, sulfates) more evident in lightly refined sea salts.
Ionic species in solution: Na⁺ and Cl⁻.

Physical characteristics
Available in various granulations (fine, medium, coarse, flakes) with different flow and dissolution behavior.
Moderately hygroscopic; high ambient RH promotes caking, mitigated by anti-caking agents and barrier packaging.
White to slightly off-white, neutral odor, characteristically salty taste.

Production process
Sea salt: Concentration ponds, solar/wind evaporation, fractional precipitation, harvesting, washing, optional drying and sizing.
Rock salt: Mining, crushing, selection, washing and sometimes recrystallization, drying, and grading.
Vacuum salt: Brine preparation (dissolution or solution mining), purification, multiple-effect evaporation, crystallization, centrifugation, drying, sizing.
Finishing: Addition of iodine (KI or KIO₃) and anti-caking agents; packaging under GMP/HACCP with defined CCPs.

Technological and sensory properties
Enhances saltiness and flavor release; affects protein structure (solubilization/gelation in meats and cheeses).
Controls fermentations via osmotic pressure and contributes to preservation by reducing aw.
In baking, strengthens gluten and modulates yeast activity; in brines and cures, drives mass transfer.

Food applications
Direct seasoning; baking and savory pastry; brines and pickles; cheese salting (dry or brine); meat and fish processing; snacks and condiments; vegetable preservation.

Nutrition and health
Dietary sodium intake should align with guideline limits. Excess consumption is associated with blood-pressure increases in sensitive individuals. Iodized salt supports population iodine intake; stability is generally better with KIO₃ and with storage that is dry and protected from light/heat.

Quality and specification themes
Assay for NaCl, moisture, insolubles, and heavy metals within limits; consistent granulation; iodine content within declared range.
No off-flavors; anti-caking effectiveness without perceivable residues.
Traceability, cleanliness, and compliant food-contact materials; production under GMP/HACCP.

Storage and shelf life
Store cool and dry in well-sealed, low-permeability containers; control RH to prevent caking.
Protect iodized salt from humidity, heat, and light to minimize iodine losses.
Apply FIFO rotation.

Allergens and safety
Salt contains no listed major allergens, but contaminants may occur from poorly controlled sources. Approved anti-caking agents are safe at permitted levels. In plants, dust and foreign-body control belong to CCPs.

Cosmetic (INCI) functions
INCI name: “Sodium Chloride.” Functions: viscosity-increasing in anionic surfactant systems (“salt curve”), abrasive/exfoliant in scrubs, bulking agent, cleansing aid, and mild astringent.

Troubleshooting
Caking/compaction: High RH or inadequate packaging → Improve barrier, add anti-caking agent, include desiccants.
Iodine loss: Humidity/light/heat → Prefer KIO₃, minimize exposure time, improve packaging.
Metallic off-notes: Impurities or excessive anti-caking → Refine/filtrate better and optimize dosing.
Irregular flow in dosing: Non-uniform granulation → Recalibrate sieving and control fines.

Sustainability and supply chain
Solar sea salt has a low energy footprint; vacuum salt is more energy intensive but yields higher purity. Managing brines and mother liquors, using recyclable packaging, and controlling particulate emissions improve the footprint. Monitoring effluents against BOD/COD targets is good practice.

Conclusion
Table salt is a foundational ingredient for flavor, process technology, and food safety. Application quality depends on purity, particle size, moisture management, and—where relevant—proper iodization and protection of iodine. With disciplined processing and storage, salt delivers consistent performance and safety.

Mini-glossary
NaCl — Sodium chloride: Principal component of table salt.
Na⁺/Cl⁻ — Sodium/chloride ions: Dominant species in saline solutions.
aw — Water activity: Fraction of “free” water; salt lowers aw and aids preservation.
RH — Relative humidity: Ambient moisture; high RH drives caking and flow loss.
KI/KIO₃ — Potassium iodide/iodate: Iodizing salts; KIO₃ is generally more storage-stable.
MAP — Modified atmosphere packaging: Protective gas mixes to extend shelf life (used for some foods salted/packed).
GMP — Good Manufacturing Practice: Hygiene and process controls ensuring consistency and traceability.
HACCP — Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points: Preventive food-safety system with defined CCPs.
CCP — Critical control point: A step where control prevents, eliminates, or reduces a hazard to acceptable levels.
FIFO — First in, first out: Inventory rotation principle—use older lots first.
BOD/COD — Biochemical/Chemical oxygen demand: Effluent organic-load indicators for environmental management.
INCI — International Nomenclature of Cosmetic Ingredients: Standardized cosmetic ingredient naming/functions.
E535/E536 — Sodium/potassium ferrocyanide: Approved anti-caking agents used at trace levels.
E551/E552 — Silicon dioxide/calcium silicate: Approved anti-caking agents used at trace levels.

Studies

Food

It is recommended to reduce salt consumption as it may cause damage to the cardiovascular system and increase the values of harmful LDL-cholesterol and cause hypertension, obesity and other serious diseases, but there is also diet salt on the market, with a lower percentage of sodium. 

'Salt killer'. This was the title of a well-known and authoritative American newspaper some time ago, explaining in detail the reasons why the overuse of common table salt could cause serious damage to health. In fact, salt is found naturally in almost all foods, so we absorb it daily, but heavy consumption can damage the human body. 

Hypertension: The relationship between salt and hypertension is unequivocal (1), and especially for the elderly, consumption must be reduced (2). For young people, the problems may be minor, but still exist (3). 

Obesity : High salt consumption is associated with overweight and obesity (4). 

Drinks and chips : The amount of salt in drinks, crisps etc. should be controlled, as the combination of salt and sugar (as not only sugar is included, but fructose, dextrose and others) can increase the risk associated with high salt consumption (5). 

Osteoporosis: In this study, despite press campaigns to advise against salt consumption, the results proved rather disappointing (6). The title of the article sums it up well: Important element, but invisible threat. 

So, to summarise, salt is an indispensable element, but one must be very careful not to abuse it. 

Salt is used as a food preservative

Cosmetics

In cosmetics, sodium chloride has the function of increasing the moisturising efficacy of ageing skin, is a thickener in shampoos and conditioners, but is also a co-factor in the eye irritation experienced with most shampoos and can cause dryness and itching of the scalp (7). Skin sodium is a pathophysiological feature of psoriasis (8), a chronic inflammatory skin disease, so high concentrations of sodium chloride should not be present in cosmetic products.

Medical

Sodium chloride is used in numerous medical and pharmaceutical applications: preservative, hypertonic salt solution in conjunction with dextran, production of interleukin-4, antibacterial with biocidal effect against Staphylococcus aureus (9).

Human epidermal stem cells can be stored in anhydrous sodium chloride at room temperature for months as well as some resident immune cells and skin fibroblasts.

References_______________________________________________________________________

(1) Patience S. Understanding the relationship between salt intake and hypertension. Nurs Stand. 2013 Jan 2-8;27(18):45-7. doi: 10.7748/ns2013.01.27.18.45.c9487. 

Abstract. Hypertension is a public health problem that contributes significantly to the non-communicable disease burden. A review of the epidemiological literature demonstrates that the relationship between salt and hypertension is unequivocal. The Department of Health has reported some success promoting awareness of the need to reduce salt consumption, but more work needs to be done in this area.

(2) Borghi C, Tartagni E. The older patient with hypertension: care and cure. Ther Adv Chronic Dis. 2012 Sep;3(5):231-6. doi: 10.1177/2040622312452189. 

Abstract. Hypertension is one of the most important clinical conditions affecting older people. Its prevalence in this group of subjects is above 60% and continues to grow. Isolated systolic hypertension accounts for the majority of cases as systolic blood pressure increases with advancing age, while diastolic blood pressure remains unchanged or even decreases. Nowadays hypertension is a well established risk factor for stroke and cardiovascular disease among older people and its treatment is considered mandatory. The general recommended blood pressure goal in uncomplicated hypertension is less than 140/90 mmHg, even if this target in older people is based mainly on expert opinion. All patients should receive nonpharmacological treatment, in particular reduction in excess body weight when body mass index is greater than 26 kg/m(2) and dietary salt restriction. Older patients with hypertension may also benefit from smoking cessation, physical activity and alcohol restriction. In relation to drug therapy, a low-dose thiazide diuretic could be a good first step. Other first-line drugs are long-acting calcium channel blockers, generally dihydropyridines, and angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors or angiotensin II receptor blockers. The HYVET study showed a specific protective effect of indapamide with or without perindopril in people older than 80 years. Since monotherapy normalizes blood pressure in only 40-50% of cases, a combination of two or more drugs is often required. Moreover the addiction of a second drug may reduce the dose-related adverse effects of the first one. Finally, compliance with treatment should always be achieved by giving complete information to patients and simplifying the drug regimen as much as possible.

He FJ, Campbell NR, MacGregor GA. Reducing salt intake to prevent hypertension and cardiovascular disease. Rev Panam Salud Publica. 2012 Oct;32(4):293-300. doi: 10.1590/s1020-49892012001000008.

Abstract. There is compelling evidence that dietary salt intake is the major cause of raised blood pressure (BP) and that a reduction in salt intake from the current level of ≈ 9 - 12 g/day in most countries to the recommended level of < 5 g/day lowers BP. A further reduction to 3 - 4 g/day has a greater effect and there needs to be ongoing consideration of lower targets for population salt intake. Cohort studies and outcome trials have demonstrated that a lower salt intake is related to a reduced risk of cardiovascular disease. Salt reduction is one of the most cost-effective measures to improve public health worldwide. In the Americas, a salt intake of > 9 g/day is highly prevalent. Sources of salt in the diet vary hugely among countries; in developed countries, 75% of salt comes from processed foods, whereas in developing countries such as parts of Brazil, 70% comes from salt added during cooking or at the table. To reduce population salt intake, the food industry needs to implement a gradual and sustained reduction in the amount of salt added to foods in developed countries. In developing countries, a public health campaign plays a more important role in encouraging consumers to use less salt coupled with widespread replacement of salt with substitutes that are low in sodium and high in potassium. Numerous countries in the Americas have started salt reduction programs. The challenge now is to engage other countries. A reduction in population salt intake will result in a major improvement in public health along with major health-related cost savings.

(3) Campagnoli T, Gonzalez L, Santa Cruz F. Salt intake and blood pressure in the University of Asuncion-Paraguay youths: a preliminary study. J Bras Nefrol. 2012 Oct-Dec;34(4):361-8. doi: 10.5935/0101-2800.20120026. 

Abstract. Introduction: High salt intake is a major risk factor related to many cardiovascular and renal diseases. World Action on Salt and Health is a newly formed coalition of heath professionals whose goal is to implement changes in salt consumption in their respective countries for the goal of reducing blood pressure. In the same vein, we have decided to study the amount of salt intake in Paraguay to determine if a relationship exists between salt intake and blood pressure. Objective: A preliminary study was undertaken to determine salt intake in Paraguay and its relationship with blood pressure, in order to implement a national program to combat hypertension.... Conclusion: Salt intake and blood pressure were found to be significantly elevated in young adults in Paraguay and argues for the importance of instituting a national campaign to reduce salt intake in this society.

(4) Woodruff SJ, Fryer K, Campbell T, Cole M. Associations among blood pressure, salt consumption and body weight status of students from south-western Ontario. Public Health Nutr. 2014 May;17(5):1114-9. doi: 10.1017/S1368980013000335.

Abstract. Objective: The purpose was to examine the associations among body weight status, blood pressure and daily Na intake among grade 7 students from south-western Ontario, Canada. Design: Cross-sectional. Data were collected using the Food Behaviour Questionnaire, including a 24 h diet recall. Measured height and weight were used to determine BMI. Blood pressure was taken manually using mercury sphygmomanometers.... Conclusions: High intakes of Na, coupled with high SBP and DBP, were associated with overweight and obesity status among the grade 7 sample from south-western Ontario, Canada.

(5) Grimes CA, Riddell LJ, Campbell KJ, Nowson CA. Dietary salt intake, sugar-sweetened beverage consumption, and obesity risk. Pediatrics. 2013 Jan;131(1):14-21. doi: 10.1542/peds.2012-1628.

Abstract. Objective: To determine the association among dietary salt, fluid, and sugar-sweetened beverage (SSB) consumption and weight status in a nationally representative sample of Australian children aged 2 to 16 years....Conclusions: Dietary salt intake predicted total fluid consumption and SSB consumption within consumers of SSBs. Furthermore, SSB consumption was associated with obesity risk. In addition to the known benefits of lowering blood pressure, salt reduction strategies may be useful in childhood obesity prevention efforts.

(6) Wick JY. Salt: important element, invisible menace. Consult Pharm. 2012 Nov;27(11):756-62. doi: 10.4140/TCP.n.2012.756.

(7) Staszak K, Wieczorek D, Michocka K. Effect of Sodium Chloride on the Surface and Wetting Properties of Aqueous Solutions of Cocamidopropyl Betaine. J Surfactants Deterg. 2015;18(2):321-328. doi: 10.1007/s11743-014-1644-8.

Abstract. Surfactants are important ingredients of personal care products and household products. The main characteristic of these compounds is to decrease the surface tension of solvent and resulting many properties such as contact angle, foam properties etc. The coexistence of other ingredients in the product may affect the properties of surfactants. One of the main components contained in almost every personal care and household product is sodium chloride. The main aim of this work was to determine the effect of this salt on some surface and usage properties of cocamidopropyl betaine (CAPB). From our experiments it was shown that the effect of added sodium chloride in the aqueous solutions of CAPB on the properties is the opposite to the one described in the literature for cationic and anionic surfactants, i.e., CMC increases with increasing ionic strength, foam height decreases with increasing salt concentration. Our investigation showed that sodium chloride makes worse the properties of the CAPB solutions examined in this work.

(8) Maifeld A, Wild J, Karlsen TV, Rakova N, Wistorf E, Linz P, Jung R, Birukov A, Gimenez-Rivera VA, Wilck N, Bartolomaeus T, Dechend R, Kleinewietfeld M, Forslund SK, Krause A, Kokolakis G, Philipp S, Clausen BE, Brand A, Waisman A, Kurschus FC, Wegner J, Schultheis M, Luft FC, Boschmann M, Kelm M, Wiig H, Kuehne T, Müller DN, Karbach S, Markó L. Skin Sodium Accumulates in Psoriasis and Reflects Disease Severity. J Invest Dermatol. 2022 Jan;142(1):166-178.e8. doi: 10.1016/j.jid.2021.06.013. 

(9) Popova, T., Petrova, T., Karadzhov, S. and Krustanova, G., 2016. Investigation of the Biocidal effect of electrochemically activated aqueous sodium chloride solution on Staphylococcus aureus. Traditions and Modernity in Veterinary Medicine. Scientific Journal of the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine of University of Forestry, Sofia, 1(1), pp.67-72.

Abstract. Studies were carried out to determine the sensitivity of Staphylococcus aureus to electrochemically activated 3% aqueous sodium chloride solution (anolyte) in different concentrations – 100 %, 50 %, 25 % and 12.5 %. As a control was used the disinfectant Virkon S, applied at final concentrations of 1 %, 0.5 %, 0.25 % and 0.125 %. Two referent strains of S. aureus were used – ATCC and Kowan. It had been found that the anolyte in concentrations of 50 and 100 % inactivates the cells of S. aureus ATCC in suspension at a density of 106 cells/ml within 5 min. After 10 minutes of impact and lower concentrations (25 and 12.5 %) had a bactericidal effect. The anolyte in all tested concentration (12.5 to 100 %) had a bactericidal effect on the cells of S. aureus Kowan in suspension with concentration of 106 cells/ml in 10-minutes. Shorter intervals tested (2 min and 5min) were not sufficient for achieving bactericidal action even at a concentration of anolyte 50 and 100 %, while after 10 min and even smaller concentrations (25 and 12.5 %) had such action. S. aureus ATCC showed slightly higher sensitivity to anolyte and Virkon S compared to the other tested strain Kowan. The effect of the control disinfectant Virkon S on the tested staphylococcal strains was completely analogous to that of the anolyte.

(9) Olszewski WL, Moscicka M, Zolich D, Machowski Z. Human keratinocyte stem cells survive for months in sodium chloride and can be successfully transplanted. Transplant Proc. 2005 Jan-Feb;37(1):525-6. doi: 10.1016/j.transproceed.2004.12.174. 

Abstract. Human skin fragments can be preserved in anhydric sodium chloride at room temperature for periods of weeks or months and successfully transplanted, retaining normal morphological structure. Skin fragments of 10 x 10 x 6 mm were harvested during elective vascular and orthopedic surgery of lower limbs, dried of blood, and placed in anhydric sodium chloride powder in tightly sealed containers. Prior to transplantation to scid mice, the specimens were desalinated and rehydrated. Specimens preserved for 1-6 months and harvested 3-4 weeks after transplantation revealed intensive incorporation of bromdeoxyuridine (BdUR) into basal keratinocytes (stem cells). They expressed p63 and CD29 (stem cells and transient cells antigens), proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA), and cytokeratin 16 specific for proliferating keratinocytes. We conclude that human epidermal stem cells can survive in a dehydrated state in sodium chloride for months and after transplantation give rise to keratinocyte progenies. Skin fibroblasts and some resident immune cells can also survive.

Wenstedt EFE, Beugelink L, Schrooten EM, Rademaker E, Rorije NMG, Wouda RD, Schlingemann RO, Wong TY, Vogt L. High-salt intake affects retinal vascular tortuosity in healthy males: an exploratory randomized cross-over trial. Sci Rep. 2021 Jan 12;11(1):801. doi: 10.1038/s41598-020-79753-6.

Abstract. The retinal microcirculation is increasingly receiving credit as a relatively easily accessible microcirculatory bed that correlates closely with clinical cardiovascular outcomes. The effect of high salt (NaCl) intake on the retinal microcirculation is currently unknown. Therefore, we performed an exploratory randomized cross-over dietary intervention study in 18 healthy males. All subjects adhered to a two-week high-salt diet and low-salt diet, in randomized order, after which fundus photographs were taken and assessed using a semi-automated computer-assisted program (SIVA, version 4.0). Outcome parameters involved retinal venular and arteriolar tortuosity, vessel diameter, branching angle and fractal dimension. At baseline, participants had a mean (SD) age of 29.8 (4.4) years and blood pressure of 117 (9)/73 (5) mmHg. Overall, high-salt diet significantly increased venular tortuosity (12.2%, p = 0.001). Other retinal parameters were not significantly different between diets. Changes in arteriolar tortuosity correlated with changes in ambulatory systolic blood pressure (r = - 0.513; p = 0.04). In conclusion, high-salt diet increases retinal venular tortuosity, and salt-induced increases in ambulatory systolic blood pressure associate with decreases in retinal arteriolar tortuosity. Besides potential eye-specific consequences, both phenomena have previously been associated with hypertension and other cardiovascular risk factors, underlining the deleterious microcirculatory effects of high salt intake.

Piecha G, Koleganova N, Ritz E, Müller A, Fedorova OV, Bagrov AY, Lutz D, Schirmacher P, Gross-Weissmann ML. High salt intake causes adverse fetal programming--vascular effects beyond blood pressure. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2012 Sep;27(9):3464-76. doi: 10.1093/ndt/gfs027. 

Abstract. Background: High salt intake causes hypertension, adverse cardiovascular outcomes and potentially also blood pressure (BP)-independent target organ damage. Excess salt intake in pregnancy is known to affect BP in the offspring. The present study was designed to assess whether high salt intake in pregnancy affects BP and vascular morphology in the offspring. Methods: Sprague-Dawley rats were fed a standard rodent diet with low-normal (0.15%) or high (8.0%) salt content during pregnancy and lactation. After weaning at 4 weeks of age, offspring were maintained on the same diet or switched to a high- or low-salt diet, respectively. Vascular geometry was assessed in male offspring at 7 and 12 weeks postnatally. Results: Up to 12 weeks of age, there was no significant difference in telemetrically measured BP between the groups of offspring. At 12 weeks of age, wall thickness of central (aorta, carotid), muscular (mesenteric) and intrapulmonary arteries was significantly higher in offspring of mothers on a high-salt diet irrespective of the post-weaning diet. This correlated with increased fibrosis of the aortic wall, more intense nitrotyrosine staining as well as elevated levels of marinobufagenin (MBG) and asymmetric dimethyl arginine (ADMA). Conclusions: High salt intake in pregnant rats has long-lasting effects on the modeling of central and muscular arteries in the offspring independent of postnatal salt intake and BP. Circulating MBG and ADMA and local oxidative stress correlate with the adverse vascular modeling.

Oberleithner H, Peters W, Kusche-Vihrog K, Korte S, Schillers H, Kliche K, Oberleithner K. Salt overload damages the glycocalyx sodium barrier of vascular endothelium. Pflugers Arch. 2011 Oct;462(4):519-28. doi: 10.1007/s00424-011-0999-1. 

Abstract. Sodium overload stiffens vascular endothelial cells in vitro and promotes arterial hypertension in vivo. The hypothesis was tested that the endothelial glycocalyx (eGC), a mesh of anionic biopolymers covering the surface of the endothelium, participates in the stiffening process. By using a mechanical nanosensor, mounted on an atomic force microscope, height (∼400 nm) and stiffness (∼0.25 pN/nm) of the eGC on the luminal endothelial surface of split-open human umbilical arteries were quantified. In presence of aldosterone, the increase of extracellular sodium concentration from 135 to 150 mM over 5 days (sodium overload) led the eGC shrink by ∼50% and stiffening by ∼130%. Quantitative eGC analyses reveal that sodium overload caused a reduction of heparan sulphate residues by 68% which lead to destabilization and collapse of the eGC. Sodium overload transformed the endothelial cells from a sodium release into a sodium-absorbing state. Spironolactone, a specific aldosterone antagonist, prevented these changes. We conclude that the endothelial glycocalyx serves as an effective buffer barrier for sodium. Damaged eGC facilitates sodium entry into the endothelial cells. This could explain endothelial dysfunction and arterial hypertension observed in sodium abuse.

DeLalio LJ, Hahn S, Katayama PL, Wenner MM, Farquhar WB, Straub AC, Stocker SD. Excessive dietary salt promotes aortic stiffness in murine renovascular hypertension. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2020 May 1;318(5):H1346-H1355. doi: 10.1152/ajpheart.00601.2019. 

Abstract. Renovascular hypertension is characterized by activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, blunted natriuretic responses, and elevated sympathetic nerve activity. Excess dietary salt intake exaggerates arterial blood pressure (ABP) in multiple models of experimental hypertension. The present study tested whether a high-salt diet exaggerated ABP and vascular dysfunction in a 2-kidney, 1-clip (2K1C) murine model. Male C57BL/6J mice (8-12 wk) were randomly assigned, and fed a 0.1% or 4.0% NaCl diet, and instrumented with telemetry units to measure ABP. Then, the 2K1C model was produced by placing a cuff around the right renal artery. Systolic, diastolic, and mean ABP were significantly higher in mice fed 4.0% vs. 0.1% NaCl at 1 wk but not after 3 wk. Interestingly, 2K1C hypertension progressively increased arterial pulse pressure in both groups; however, the magnitude was significantly greater in mice fed 4.0% vs. 0.1% NaCl at 3 wk. Moreover, pulse wave velocity was significantly greater in 2K1C mice fed 4.0% vs. 0.1% NaCl diet or sham-operated mice fed either diet. Histological assessment of aortas indicated no structural differences among groups. Finally, endothelium-dependent vasodilation was significantly and selectively attenuated in the aorta but not mesenteric arteries of 2K1C mice fed 4.0% NaCl vs. 0.1% NaCl or sham-operated control mice. The findings suggest that dietary salt loading transiently exaggerates 2K1C renovascular hypertension but promotes chronic aortic stiffness and selective aortic vascular dysfunction.NEW & NOTEWORTHY High dietary salt exaggerates hypertension in multiple experimental models. Here we demonstrate that a high-salt diet produces a greater increase in arterial blood pressure at 1 wk after induction of 2-kidney, 1-clip (2K1C) hypertension but not at 3 wk. Interestingly, 2K1C mice fed a high-salt diet displayed an exaggerated pulse pressure, elevated pulse wave velocity, and reduced endothelium-dependent vasodilation of the aorta but not mesenteric arteries. These findings suggest that dietary salt may interact with underlying cardiovascular disease to promote selective vascular dysfunction and aortic stiffness.

 Bailey MA, Dhaun N. Salt Sensitivity: Causes, Consequences, and Recent Advances. Hypertension. 2024 Mar;81(3):476-489. doi: 10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.123.17959. 

Abstract. Salt (sodium chloride) is an essential nutrient required to maintain physiological functions. However, for most people, daily salt intake far exceeds their physiological need and is habitually greater than recommended upper thresholds. Excess salt intake leads to elevation in blood pressure which drives cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. Indeed, excessive salt intake is estimated to be responsible for ≈5 million deaths per year globally. For approximately one-third of otherwise healthy individuals (and >50% of those with hypertension), the effect of salt intake on blood pressure elevation is exaggerated; such people are categorized as salt sensitive and salt sensitivity of blood pressure is considered an independent risk factor for cardiovascular disease and death. The prevalence of salt sensitivity is higher in women than in men and, in both, increases with age. This narrative review considers the foundational concepts of salt sensitivity and the underlying effector systems that cause salt sensitivity. We also consider recent updates in preclinical and clinical research that are revealing new modifying factors that determine the blood pressure response to high salt intake.

Staszak K, Wieczorek D, Michocka K. Effect of Sodium Chloride on the Surface and Wetting Properties of Aqueous Solutions of Cocamidopropyl Betaine. J Surfactants Deterg. 2015;18(2):321-328. doi: 10.1007/s11743-014-1644-8.

Abstract. Surfactants are important ingredients of personal care products and household products. The main characteristic of these compounds is to decrease the surface tension of solvent and resulting many properties such as contact angle, foam properties etc. The coexistence of other ingredients in the product may affect the properties of surfactants. One of the main components contained in almost every personal care and household product is sodium chloride. The main aim of this work was to determine the effect of this salt on some surface and usage properties of cocamidopropyl betaine (CAPB). From our experiments it was shown that the effect of added sodium chloride in the aqueous solutions of CAPB on the properties is the opposite to the one described in the literature for cationic and anionic surfactants, i.e., CMC increases with increasing ionic strength, foam height decreases with increasing salt concentration. Our investigation showed that sodium chloride makes worse the properties of the CAPB solutions examined in this work.