Chili, Red pepper (hot chili; Capsicum annuum L./C. frutescens, family Solanaceae) has in nature different varieties that make it more or less spicy. Capsicum annuum L. var. acuminatum (Fingerh.) is larger in size and less spicy. Capsicum annuum var. glabriusculum (Wild Piquin Chili) is smaller and spicier.
Description
Spice/vegetable from ripe red chili pods, used fresh, dried as flakes, or ground; sometimes as oleoresin.
Sensory: pungent/fiery heat, fruity notes, occasionally smoky; color bright red to amber in powders.
Typical heat: ~10,000–50,000 SHU (wide cultivar/lot variability). Not to be confused with sweet red bell pepper/paprika.
Caloric value (per 100 g)
Dried/ground: ~280–360 kcal (seed/oil content dependent).
Fresh: ~30–50 kcal (high water).
Indicative (dried): carbohydrate 50–60 g, fiber 25–35 g, protein 10–15 g, fat 10–17 g; naturally low sodium.
Key constituents
Capsaicinoids: chiefly capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin (~0.2–1.0% w/w in dried spice) → heat.
Carotenoids: capsanthin, capsorubin, zeaxanthin, β-carotene → color/antioxidant role.
Volatiles (terpenes, aldehydes) giving fruity/herbaceous notes; minor phenolics.
Seed oil (triacylglycerols): predominately PUFA (linoleic n-6) with MUFA (oleic).
Analytical markers: SHU/capsaicinoids (HPLC), ASTA color, moisture, aw.
Production process
Harvest fully red pods → controlled drying (air/tunnel) to target moisture → cleaning/destemming → milling (specified particle size) → sanitization (steam or equivalent) → sieving → barrier packaging under GMP/HACCP.
Oleoresins: solvent extraction and concentration → standardization for capsaicinoids/color.
Sensory and technological properties
Fats efficiently extract/transport capsaicinoids → fuller heat; brief heating can amplify pungency.
Disperses readily in oil/alcohol; in water, use emulsification.
Contributes color, aroma, and browning; strong synergy with cumin, garlic, onion, and acids (vinegar, lime).
Food uses
Hot sauces, rubs/marinades for meats/fish, stews/legumes, snack seasonings, cured meats, and chili oils.
Typical inclusion (powder): 0.05–0.6%; validate target SHU and color via pilot trials.
Nutrition and health
Provides fiber and carotenoids; fat and sodium are low at culinary doses.
Capsaicin may promote a warming effect/brief thermogenesis, but can irritate GI tract and mucosae in sensitive individuals.
For reflux/ulcers or sensitive mucosae: use lower doses or milder cultivars. Avoid unauthorized health claims.
Lipid profile
Overall fat modest in the spice; typical pattern PUFA > MUFA >> SFA (nutritional impact negligible at use levels).
Health note: a comparatively higher MUFA/PUFA share vs SFA is generally favorable/neutral for blood lipids.
Quality and specifications (typical topics)
Moisture (often ≤10–12%), aw, particle size, ASTA color, capsaicinoids/SHU.
Microbiology (TVC, yeasts/molds) compliant; absence of pathogens; pesticides/metals within limits; mycotoxins (e.g., aflatoxins, OTA) per spice standards.
Authenticity/adulteration control: free of unauthorized colorants; seeds/stems within spec.
Storage and shelf-life
Store cool, dry, protected from light/oxygen; reclose promptly.
Prone to caking and color fading → barrier packs; use desiccants if needed.
Typical shelf-life 12–24 months when in spec (FIFO).
Allergens and safety
Red pepper is not a major EU allergen but may cause skin/eye irritation and reactions in sensitive individuals.
Production: use dust PPE, ensure ventilation; prevent cross-contact; manage CCP within HACCP.
INCI functions (cosmetics)
Listings: Capsicum Annuum/Capsicum Frutescens Fruit Extract/Oleoresin.
Roles: mild rubefacient/warming, stimulant at low dose, natural red colorant (oleoresins). Manage sensitization and observe use limits.
Troubleshooting
Dull color/oxidation: light/oxygen exposure → upgrade barrier, low-O₂ filling.
Dusty/rancid notes: excess seeds or oxidation → better raw selection, low-temperature grinding, FIFO rotation.
Inconsistent heat: varietal/lot variability → blending and HPLC/SHU control.
Caking: high RH → stronger packaging barrier, permitted anti-caking, add desiccant.
Sustainability and supply chain
Upcycle seeds/stems for oil/oleoresin; valorize fines.
Manage effluents to BOD/COD targets; use recyclable packaging; supplier audits and traceability under GMP/HACCP.
Protect workers from capsaicin dust (ventilation, PPE).
Conclusion
Red pepper (hot chili) delivers clean heat, vivid color, and fruity aromatics with broad versatility. Cultivar selection, tight SHU/capsaicinoid control, and protection from light/humidity ensure consistent, high-quality performance.
Mini-glossary
SHU — Scoville heat units: sensory heat scale proportional to capsaicinoid levels.
ASTA — Standardized color value metric for spices.
aw — Water activity: lower aw improves microbial stability.
SFA — Saturated fatty acids: excessive intake may raise LDL; present only in traces here.
MUFA — Monounsaturated fatty acids (e.g., oleic): generally favorable/neutral; low here.
PUFA — Polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-6/n-3): beneficial when balanced; overall low here.
GMP/HACCP — Good Manufacturing Practice / Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points: hygiene and preventive-safety frameworks with defined CCP.
BOD/COD — Biochemical/Chemical oxygen demand: indicators of wastewater organic load.
CCP — Critical control point: processing step where a control prevents/reduces a hazard.
FIFO — First in, first out: stock rotation using older lots first.
Studies
It has some active ingredients such as antioxidants and vitamins that help contain blood sugar.
The Capsaicin contained in hot pepper has anti-inflammatory properties and is responsible for the sense of burning that we have when we put in the mouth even a small part of the hot pepper.
The beneficial influences of capsaicin on the gastrointestinal system include the stimulating digestive action and modulation of the intestinal ultrastructure to improve permeability to micronutrients (1).
In the search for contraindicated treatments for obesity, the flavonoids in the hot pepper flower extract have shown anti-obesity activity with minimal disadvantages (2).
These are the components of hot pepper with the highest antioxidant activity (3):
- beta-carotene
- zeaxanthin
- beta-cryptoxanthin
Spicy foods and chili peppers contain the primary ingredient capsaicin, which has potential health benefits. However, their efficacy in some health outcomes is also fiercely disputed, and some side effects have been confirmed. (4)
Hot pepper studies
References_________________________________________________
(1) Srinivasan K. Biological Activities of Red Pepper (Capsicum annuum) and Its Pungent Principle Capsaicin: A Review Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2016 Jul 3;56(9):1488-500. doi: 10.1080/10408398.2013.772090. Review.
Abstract. Capsaicin, the pungent alkaloid of red pepper (Capsicum annuum) has been extensively studied for its biological effects which are of pharmacological relevance. These include: cardio protective influence, antilithogenic effect, antiinflammatory, and analgesia, thermogenic influence, and beneficial effects on gastrointestinal system. Therefore, capsaicinoids may have the potential clinical value for pain relief, cancer prevention and weight loss. It has been shown that capsaicinoids are potential agonists of capsaicin receptor (TRPV1). They could exert the effects not only through the receptor-dependent pathway but also through the receptor-independent one. The involvement of neuropeptide Substance P, serotonin, and somatostatin in the pharmacological actions of capsaicin has been extensively investigated. Topical application of capsaicin is proved to alleviate pain in arthritis, postoperative neuralgia, diabetic neuropathy, psoriasis, etc. Toxicological studies on capsaicin administered by different routes are documented. Capsaicin inhibits acid secretion, stimulates alkali and mucus secretion and particularly gastric mucosal blood flow which helps in prevention and healing of gastric ulcers. Antioxidant and antiinflammatory properties of capsaicin are established in a number of studies. Chemopreventive potential of capsaicin is evidenced in cell line studies. The health beneficial hypocholesterolemic influence of capsaicin besides being cardio protective has other implications, viz., prevention of cholesterol gallstones and protection of the structural integrity of erythrocytes under conditions of hypercholesterolemia. Beneficial influences of capsaicin on gastrointestinal system include digestive stimulant action and modulation of intestinal ultrastructure so as to enhance permeability to micronutrients.
(2) Marrelli M, Menichini F, Conforti F. Hypolipidemic and Antioxidant Properties of Hot Pepper Flower (Capsicum annuum L.). Plant Foods Hum Nutr. 2016 Sep;71(3):301-6. doi: 10.1007/s11130-016-0560-7
Abstract. At present, the various medical treatments of obesity involve side effects. The aim of the research is therefore to find natural compounds that have anti-obesity activity with minimum disadvantages. In this study, the hypolipidemic effect of hydroalcoholic extract of flowers from Capsicum annuum L. was examined through the evaluation of inhibition of pancreatic lipase. Antioxidant activity was assessed using different tests: 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), nitric oxide (˙NO) and lipid peroxidation inhibition assays. Phytochemical analysis indicated that total phenolic and flavonoid content in the extract was 128.7 ± 4.5 mg chlorogenic acid equivalent/g of crude extract and 17.66 ± 0.11 mg of quercetin equivalent/g of crude extract, respectively. The extract inhibited pancreatic lipase with IC50 value equal to 3.54 ± 0.18 mg/ml. It also inhibited lipid peroxidation with IC50 value of 27.61 ± 2.25 μg/ml after 30 min of incubation and 41.69 ± 1.13 μg/ml after 60 min of incubation. The IC50 value of radical scavenging activity was 51.90 ± 2.03 μg/ml. The extract was also able to inhibit NO production (IC50 = of 264.3 ± 7.98 μg/ml) without showing any cytotoxic effect.
(3) Hervert-Hernández D, Sáyago-Ayerdi SG, Goñi I. Bioactive compounds of four hot pepper varieties (Capsicum annuum L.), antioxidant capacity, and intestinal bioaccessibility. J Agric Food Chem. 2010 Mar 24;58(6):3399-406. doi: 10.1021/jf904220w.
Abstract. Pepper fruits (Capsicum annuum) contain a wide array of phytochemicals with well-known antioxidant properties. Since bioactive compounds depend on their bioavailability to exert beneficial effects, it was crucial to estimate the extent of release from the food matrix and thus their bioaccessibility. Accordingly, we determined the individual carotenoid and phenolic content as well as the antioxidant properties of four red hot dried cultivars (Capsicum annuum L.) of high consumption in Mexico and estimated the extent of intestinal bioaccessibility of carotenoids with significance in human health, beta-carotene, beta-cryptoxanthin, and zeaxanthin, using an in vitro gastrointestinal model. Hot dried peppers at ripe stage had a high content of bioactive compounds that exhibited significant antioxidant properties (26-80 micromol trolox equivalents/g of dry matter), such as polyphenols (>2000 mg/100 g of dry matter) and carotenoids (95-437 mg/100 g of dry matter), which were partially bioaccessible. The amount released from the food matrix by the action of digestive enzymes was about 75% for total polyphenols, up to 49% for both beta-carotene and zeaxanthin, and up to 41% for beta-cryptoxanthin. The results suggest that from 50 to 80% of these carotenoids could reach the colon to be potentially fermented or could remain unavailable.
Ao Z, Huang Z, Liu H. Spicy Food and Chili Peppers and Multiple Health Outcomes: Umbrella Review. Mol Nutr Food Res. 2022 Dec;66(23):e2200167. doi: 10.1002/mnfr.202200167.
O'Sullivan L, Jiwan MA, Daly T, O'Brien NM, Aherne SA. Bioaccessibility, uptake, and transport of carotenoids from peppers (Capsicum spp.) using the coupled in vitro digestion and human intestinal Caco-2 cell model. J Agric Food Chem. 2010 May 12;58(9):5374-9. doi: 10.1021/jf100413m.
Abstract. Spanish bell peppers (Capsicum annuum L.) and chili peppers sourced from Kenya and Turkey were analyzed for their carotenoid content, bioaccessibility, and bioavailability. The order of total carotenoid content in peppers and their respective micelles was red > green > yellow. In terms of cellular carotenoid transport as a percentage of original food and micelle content, the order was yellow peppers > green > red; however, the opposite trend was seen for the actual amount of total carotenoids transported by Caco-2 cells. Although lutein was generally the most abundant carotenoid in the micelles (496.3-1565.7 microg 100 g(-1)), cellular uptake and transport of beta-carotene were the highest, 8.3-31.6 and 16.8-42.7%, respectively. Hence, the actual amount of carotenoids present in the original food and respective micelles seems to reflect the amount transported by Caco-2 cells. Therefore, color influenced the carotenoid profile, bioaccessibility, and bioavailability of carotenoids rather than pepper type.
Liu CS, Glahn RP, Liu RH. Assessment of carotenoid bioavailability of whole foods using a Caco-2 cell culture model coupled with an in vitro digestion. J Agric Food Chem. 2004 Jun 30;52(13):4330-7. doi: 10.1021/jf040028k.
Abstract. Epidemiological studies have shown that consumption of carotenoid-rich fruits and vegetables is associated with a reduced risk of developing chronic diseases. beta-Carotene, alpha-carotene, and beta-cryptoxanthin are precursors of vitamin A, a nutrient essential for human health. However, little is known about the bioavailability of carotenoids from whole foods. This study characterized the intestinal uptake performance of carotenoids using monolayers of differentiated Caco-2 human intestinal cells and mimicked human digestion to assess carotenoid absorption from carrots and corn. Results showed that Caco-2 cellular uptake of beta-carotene and zeaxanthin was higher than that of lutein. Uptake performances of pure carotenoids and carotenoids from whole foods by Caco-2 cells were both curvilinear, reaching saturated levels after 4 h of incubation. The time kinetics and dose response of carotenoid uptake presented a similar pattern in Caco-2 cells after plating for 2 and 14 days. Furthermore, the applicability of this new model was verified with whole grain corn, showing that cooked corn grain significantly enhanced carotenoid bioavailability. These results support the feasibility of the in vitro digestion cell model for assessing carotenoid absorption from whole foods as a suitable and cost-effective physiological alternative to current methodologies.
Chili 
