Long pepper (Piper longum)

Long pepper is the spicate fruit of a perennial climbing species in the family Piperaceae, offering a warm, resinous, sweet–spicy profile with persistent pungency chiefly from piperidine alkaloids. It is used whole, cracked, or ground in spice blends, curries, and traditional preparations of South and Southeast Asia, as well as in cured meats, marinades, and spiced confectionery.

Common name: Long pepper

Parent plant: Piper longum L.

Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Magnoliids
Order: Piperales
Family: Piperaceae
Genus: Piper
Species: Piper longum L.

Cultivation and growth conditions

Climate:
Long pepper is a tropical species that thrives in warm, humid environments. It requires high temperatures throughout the year and does not tolerate frost. It is typical of monsoon regions, with very humid summers and mild winters.

Sun exposure:
It prefers bright partial shade. Unlike black pepper, long pepper is more sensitive to intense direct sunlight and grows best in partially shaded areas, similar to the understory of tropical forests.

Soil:
It grows in fertile, organic-rich, well-drained soils. The ideal pH is slightly acidic to neutral (5.5–7.0). Heavy or waterlogged soils quickly lead to root rot and plant decline.

Irrigation:
Long pepper has a relatively high water demand. The soil should be kept consistently moist but never waterlogged. During dry periods, regular irrigation is necessary. Water stress reduces flowering and the production of fruiting spikes.

Temperature:

• Optimal growth: 24–32 °C

• Damage occurs below 10 °C

• High atmospheric humidity (>70%) promotes vigorous growth and fruiting

Fertilization:
The plant responds well to organic fertilization:

• Compost and well-rotted manure improve vigor and yield.

• Supplements of potassium and phosphorus support spike formation and ripening.

• Nitrogen should be applied in moderate amounts to avoid excessive vegetative growth at the expense of fruit production.

Crop care:

• Long pepper is a climbing plant, so it needs stakes, trellises, or support trees to grow vertically.

• Light pruning is used to remove old or unproductive shoots and to stimulate new productive growth.

• Monitoring and control of scale insects, aphids, and mites are important, as these pests are favored by humid conditions.

• Good air circulation around the plant helps prevent molds and fungal diseases.

Harvest:
The fruiting spikes are harvested when they turn dark brown and begin to dry. After harvesting, they are fully dried in the sun or in well-ventilated drying areas. The final product is a hard, aromatic spike, characteristic of long pepper.

Propagation:
Long pepper is propagated mainly by cuttings. Semi-woody cuttings are rooted in moist, nutrient-rich substrates. Propagation by seed is possible but less common, due to low germination rates. Transplanting is usually carried out in spring or at the beginning of the rainy season.

Caloric value (dried fruits, 100 g)
Approximately 250–310 kcal per 100 g (practical contribution is negligible at flavoring doses).

Key constituents
Pungent alkaloids: piperine (dominant) plus congeners (e.g., piperlongumine/piplartine, piperettine, pipernonaline).
Essential oil typically 1–2.5%, with mono- and sesquiterpenes such as β-caryophyllene, sabinene, limonene, α-pinene, 1,8-cineole, and traces of phenylpropanoids.
Nonvolatile matrix of starches, dietary fibers, proteins, and ash; mineral traces (K, Ca, Mg).
Analytical markers include piperine content quantified by HPLC and volatile fingerprint by GC–MS.

Average composition (indicative, per 100 g)
Moisture: ~8–12 g.
Total carbohydrate: ~40–50 g (with dietary fiber).
Protein: ~10–12 g.
Fat: ~3–6 g.
Ash: ~4–6 g.
Typical aw: low in correctly dried product.

Production process
Cultivation and harvest: A perennial climber; spikes are harvested at physiological maturity before full blackening.
Preparation and drying: Washing, sorting, optional brief blanch, then solar or hot-air drying to target moisture and aw; sticks may be sectioned or left whole.
Cleaning and standardization: Sieving, metal removal, and grading by length and purity; optional steam sterilization.
Quality control: Piperine assay by HPLC, essential-oil yield and composition by GC–MS, moisture, and microbiology; barrier packing under GMP/HACCP with defined CCPs.

Sensory and technological properties
Aroma and taste: Warm, balsamic, lightly smoky notes; sweet-spicy character with a long but less “stinging” heat than black pepper.
Functionality: Potent flavoring at low dose; piperine enhances retronasal perception and can mask mild oxidative notes in fats.
Stability: Volatiles are sensitive to light and heat; whole fruits retain aroma better than ground. Fresh grinding near use preserves quality.

Food applications
Curries and masalas; soups and stews (infuse cracked pieces), cured meats, flavored cheeses, pickles and marinades, spiced chocolate and biscuits, syrups and liqueurs. Typical inclusions are 0.1–0.5% of the matrix, to be optimized in pilot trials.

Nutrition and health
Culinary use levels have minimal energy impact while providing aroma and fiber. Piperine is a pungent alkaloid; use should follow good culinary practice, avoiding overdosing. Potential interactions with nutrient or drug metabolism are beyond ordinary culinary use and warrant caution in specialized contexts.

Quality and specification themes
Moisture ≤12% and low aw; varietal purity and freedom from foreign matter.
Piperine content and essential-oil yield within range; coherent analytical profile (HPLC, GC–MS).
Compliance on molds/mycotoxins and residues; controlled heavy metals; full traceability under GMP/HACCP.

Storage and shelf life
Store cool, dry, and dark in well-closed, low-permeability containers; control ambient RH.
Prefer whole sticks for long storage and mill near use.
Apply FIFO rotation and avoid odor pickup and excess humidity.

Allergens and safety
Long pepper is not a listed major allergen, but airborne dust can irritate airways during handling. It Is prudent to prevent cross-contact and to maintain CCPs for foreign bodies and contamination.

Cosmetic (INCI) functions
Typical listings: Piper Longum Fruit Extract, Piper Longum Fruit Oil. Reported roles include fragrance, masking, skin conditioning, and mild antimicrobial support in natural leave-on and rinse-off products.

Troubleshooting
Weak aroma: Long storage or inadequate barrier → Upgrade packaging, reduce light/heat exposure, and grind on demand.
Excess bitter/camphor notes: Overdose or prolonged cooking → Lower inclusion and add later in the process or use brief infusions.
Powder caking: High RH → Use desiccants and low-permeability packs; tighten logistics.
Elevated microbial counts: Slow drying or poor hygiene → Improve process and consider steam sterilization.

Sustainability and supply chain
Supply often involves smallholder tropical agriculture; traceability and sound post-harvest practices reduce losses and contamination. Managing sanitation and process effluents against BOD/COD targets, recovering energy, and using recyclable packaging improve the environmental profile.

Conclusion
Long pepper delivers a distinctive, versatile sensory profile with prolonged heat and balsamic complexity. Application quality depends on maturity at harvest, gentle drying, protection of volatiles, and disciplined analytical control; with these measures, stable and repeatable products are achievable.

Mini-glossary
aw — Water activity: fraction of “free” water; low aw supports microbial and oxidative stability.
RH — Relative humidity: ambient moisture; high RH drives caking and aroma loss.
HPLC — High-performance liquid chromatography: quantifies piperine and other nonvolatile markers.
GC–MS — Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry: fingerprints volatile composition and verifies identity.
GMP — Good Manufacturing Practice: hygiene and process controls ensuring consistency and traceability.
HACCP — Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points: preventive food-safety system with defined CCPs.
CCP — Critical control point: a step where control prevents, eliminates, or reduces a hazard to acceptable levels.
FIFO — First in, first out: inventory rotation principle—use the oldest compliant lots first.
INCI — International Nomenclature of Cosmetic Ingredients: standardized cosmetic ingredient naming.
BOD/COD — Biochemical/Chemical oxygen demand: indicators of effluent organic load and environmental impact.

References__________________________________________________________________________

Wan Q, Xu J, Zhu C, Liu X, Tu Y, Lei J, Yu J. Alkaloids from Piper longum Exhibit Anti-inflammatory Activity and Synergistic Effects with Chemotherapeutic Agents against Cervical Cancer Cells. J Agric Food Chem. 2023 Jul 12;71(27):10349-10360. doi: 10.1021/acs.jafc.3c01667.

Abstract. Piper longum L. is widely cultivated for food, medicine, and other purposes in tropical and subtropical regions. Sixteen compounds including nine new amide alkaloids were isolated from the roots of P. longum. The structures of these compounds were determined by spectroscopic data. All compounds showed better anti-inflammatory activities (IC50 = 1.90 ± 0.68-40.22 ± 0.45 μM) compared to indomethacin (IC50 = 52.88 ± 3.56 μM). Among the isolated compounds, five dimeric amide alkaloids exhibited synergistic effects with three chemotherapeutic drugs (paclitaxel, adriamycin, or vincristine) against cervical cancer cells. Moreover, these dimeric amide alkaloids also enhanced the efficacy of paclitaxel in paclitaxel-resistant cervical cancer cells. The combination treatment of one of these dimeric amide alkaloids and paclitaxel promoted cancer cell apoptosis, which is related to the Src/ERK/STAT3 signaling pathway.

Godara R, Verma MK, Katoch R, Yadav A, Dutt P, Satti NK, Katoch M. In vitro acaricidal activity of Piper nigrum and Piper longum fruit extracts and their active components against Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus ticks. Exp Appl Acarol. 2018 Jul;75(3):333-343. doi: 10.1007/s10493-018-0268-5.

Abstract. In vitro acaricidal activity of Piper nigrum and P. longum fruit extracts and their active components (piperine for P. nigrum and piperine and piperlonguminine for P. longum) was evaluated against adults engorged females of Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus using adult immersion test. Three concentrations of each extract with four replications were used in the bioassay. Extracts significantly affected mortality rates of ticks in dose-dependent manner ranged 12.5-95.8% for P. nigrum and 29.2-87.5% for P. longum, with an additional effect on the reproductive physiology of ticks by inhibiting oviposition (28.1-96.9% by P. nigrum and 36.1-89.3% by P. longum). However, the acaricidal and oviposition limiting properties were decreased significantly when the active component(s) of each extract was tested separately. However, the combination of piperine and piperlonguminine (obtained from P. longum extract) caused 79.2% mortality of ticks which is equivalent to the corresponding concentration (~ 5%) of the extract. It can be concluded that the fruit extracts of P. nigrum and P. longum had both acaricidal and oviposition limiting actions against the adults of R. (B.) microplus which could make it a valuable component of developing sustainable strategy for integrated tick management.

Carsono N, Tumilaar SG, Kurnia D, Latipudin D, Satari MH. A Review of Bioactive Compounds and Antioxidant Activity Properties of Piper Species. Molecules. 2022 Oct 10;27(19):6774. doi: 10.3390/molecules27196774. 

Abstract. Antioxidants are compounds that are able to inhibit the negative effects that come from free radicals. The phenomenon of imbalanced antioxidant production and the accumulation of free radicals in cells and tissues can cause oxidative stress. Excessive free radicals that enter the body cannot be warded off by endogenous antioxidant compounds so that the required antioxidant compounds can come from the outside, which helps in the performance of endogenous antioxidants. Antioxidants that come from outside consist of synthetic and natural antioxidants; however, synthetic antioxidants are not an option because they have toxic and carcinogenic effects. Therefore, the use of natural ingredients is an alternative method that is needed to create a new natural antioxidant compound. Piper species are being considered as possible medicinal plants for the development of new sources of antioxidants. Several studies have been carried out starting from the extract levels, fractions, and compounds of the Piper species, which showed good antioxidant activity. Currently, some of these plants are being used as ingredients in traditional medicines to treat allergies, toothaches, and coughs. This review examines the distribution, botanical data, pharmacology, especially antioxidant activity, and the compounds contained in five Piper species, namely Piper amalago L., Piper betle L., Piper hispidum Sw., Piper longum L., and Piper umbellatum L.

Salehi B, Zakaria ZA, Gyawali R, Ibrahim SA, Rajkovic J, Shinwari ZK, Khan T, Sharifi-Rad J, Ozleyen A, Turkdonmez E, Valussi M, Tumer TB, Monzote Fidalgo L, Martorell M, Setzer WN. Piper Species: A Comprehensive Review on Their Phytochemistry, Biological Activities and Applications. Molecules. 2019 Apr 7;24(7):1364. doi: 10.3390/molecules24071364. 

Abstract. Piper species are aromatic plants used as spices in the kitchen, but their secondary metabolites have also shown biological effects on human health. These plants are rich in essential oils, which can be found in their fruits, seeds, leaves, branches, roots and stems. Some Piper species have simple chemical profiles, while others, such as Piper nigrum, Piper betle, and Piper auritum, contain very diverse suites of secondary metabolites. In traditional medicine, Piper species have been used worldwide to treat several diseases such as urological problems, skin, liver and stomach ailments, for wound healing, and as antipyretic and anti-inflammatory agents. In addition, Piper species could be used as natural antioxidants and antimicrobial agents in food preservation. The phytochemicals and essential oils of Piper species have shown strong antioxidant activity, in comparison with synthetic antioxidants, and demonstrated antibacterial and antifungal activities against human pathogens. Moreover, Piper species possess therapeutic and preventive potential against several chronic disorders. Among the functional properties of Piper plants/extracts/active components the antiproliferative, anti-inflammatory, and neuropharmacological activities of the extracts and extract-derived bioactive constituents are thought to be key effects for the protection against chronic conditions, based on preclinical in vitro and in vivo studies, besides clinical studies. Habitats and cultivation of Piper species are also covered in this review. In this current work, available literature of chemical constituents of the essential oils Piper plants, their use in traditional medicine, their applications as a food preservative, their antiparasitic activities and other important biological activities are reviewed.

Li D, Wang R, Cheng X, Yang J, Yang Y, Qu H, Li S, Lin S, Wei D, Bai Y, Zheng X. Chemical constituents from the fruits of Piper longum L. and their vascular relaxation effect on rat mesenteric arteries. Nat Prod Res. 2022 Jan;36(2):674-679. doi: 10.1080/14786419.2020.1797726. 

Abstract. Eight compounds were obtained from the dry fruits of Piper longum L., and their potential vascular relaxant activities were explored. The present study first revealed the access of Rosin (7) and Piperchabaoside (8) in the medicinal plant Piper longum L. The vessel tension studies showed that Piperine (2), (2E,4E,14Z)-N-isobutyleicosa-2,4,14-trienamide (3), and Piperlonguminine (6) exerted significant inhibitory effects on PE-induced mesenteric artery vasoconstriction. Furthermore, Calcium Imaging studies were applied to observe the effect of Piperine on the intracellular calcium in mesenteric artery smooth muscle cells (MASMCs). Piperine (2) was observed to promote the influx of extracellular calcium in MASMCs, and via an endothelium-independent mechanism involving Ca2+ entry. Piper longum L. might have a great potential to be further studied as a vascular relaxant, even to be a drug candidate of anti-hypertension.

Harini B, Rajeshkumar S, Roy A. Biomedical Application of Chitosan and Piper Longum-assisted Nano Zinc Oxide-based Dental Varnish. Appl Biochem Biotechnol. 2022 Mar;194(3):1303-1309. doi: 10.1007/s12010-021-03712-8. 

Gou G, Xu N, Li H, Li J, Aisa HA. Sesquiterpenes from the fruits of Piper longum L. and their anti-inflammatory activity. Fitoterapia. 2024 Dec;179:106260. doi: 10.1016/j.fitote.2024.106260. Epub 2024 Oct 15. PMID: 39413978.

Kumar S, Kamboj J, Suman, Sharma S. Overview for various aspects of the health benefits of Piper longum linn. fruit. J Acupunct Meridian Stud. 2011 Jun;4(2):134-40. doi: 10.1016/S2005-2901(11)60020-4. PMID: 21704957.

Viet Phong N, Thi Nguyet Anh D, Yeong Chae H, Young Yang S, Jeong Kwon M, Sun Min B, Ah Kim J. Anti-inflammatory activity and cytotoxicity against ovarian cancer cell lines by amide alkaloids and piperic esters isolated from Piper longum fruits: In vitro assessments and molecular docking simulation. Bioorg Chem. 2022 Nov;128:106072. doi: 10.1016/j.bioorg.2022.106072.