Chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla / Matricaria recutita)

Description
Chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla or Matricaria recutita, family Asteraceae) is an annual herb characterised by small daisy-like flower heads with white ray florets and a yellow central disc. It is one of the most widely used medicinal plants and is mainly employed for herbal infusions, extracts and cosmetic formulations.
Aromatically, chamomile is recognisable by its sweet, floral, slightly honey-like and herbaceous fragrance, while the taste is delicate, mildly bitter and characteristic.

Common name: Chamomile (German chamomile, common chamomile)

Parent plant: Matricaria chamomilla L.
(syn. Matricaria recutita L.)

Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Order: Asterales
Family: Asteraceae
Genus: Matricaria
Species: Matricaria chamomilla L.

Note: It must not be confused with Roman chamomile, Chamaemelum nobile, which is a different species, although uses are partly similar.

Cultivation and growth conditions

Climate

Chamomile is a rustic plant, well adapted to temperate climates.

• Optimal temperatures: 18–26 °C.

• It withstands moderate cold and can tolerate light frosts.

• It tolerates heat but flowers best under mild conditions.

• It prefers dry, well-ventilated climates and does not like excessive humidity.

Sun exposure

Requires full sun, which is essential for:

• high flower production,

• optimal concentration of essential oils (bisabolol, chamazulene),

• reduced risk of fungal diseases.

It can grow in light partial shade, but with lower flower yield.

Soil

Chamomile prefers soils that are:

• light, sandy or medium-textured,

• well drained,

• moderately fertile,

• with pH between 6.0 and 7.5.

Very rich soils favor leaf growth at the expense of flowers.
Avoid heavy clay soils or waterlogged conditions.

Irrigation

Water requirement is low to moderate:

• Needs little water once established.

• Irrigate only during prolonged drought or in the early growth stages.

• Excessive irrigation can cause root rot and reduce essential oil content.

Temperature

• Germination: 18–22 °C

• Optimal growth: 18–26 °C

• Temperatures below about 10 °C slow development

• Very high temperatures (>30 °C) accelerate flower senescence

Fertilization

Chamomile does not need heavy fertilization:

• Nitrogen: should be applied sparingly to avoid lush vegetative growth with fewer flowers.

• Phosphorus and potassium: support flowering and stress resistance.

• A light application of well-matured compost is usually sufficient.

Overfertilization reduces quality and aroma of the flower heads.

Crop care

• Weed control is important during early stages, when plants are still small and slow-growing.

• Avoid waterlogging to prevent fungal diseases such as powdery mildew and root rots.

• Chamomile is generally resistant to pests; occasionally aphids or thrips may appear.

• A light trimming after flowering can stimulate a second, smaller flowering flush.

Harvest

The used part is the flower head (capitulum).

• Flowers are harvested when they are fully open but still fresh, at the stage of maximum active principles.

• Harvest preferably in the morning, on dry days.

• Harvesting can be manual or mechanized in large fields.

For drying:

• spread flower heads in thin layers,

• in a shaded, cool, well-ventilated place,

• until completely dry.

Propagation

Chamomile is propagated by seed.

• Sown in spring on a finely prepared seedbed.

• Seeds are very small and need light to germinate (do not cover them with soil).

• Germination takes about 7–14 days with constant moisture.

The plant often self-seeds and can re-establish itself spontaneously in subsequent years.

Indicative nutritional values per 100 g (dried flower heads)
(Usual use level is 1–2 g per cup; the values below are purely indicative.)

• Energy: ≈ 240–250 kcal

• Water: ≈ 6–10 g

• Carbohydrates: ≈ 50–55 g

  • of which sugars: ≈ 1–2 g

• Protein: ≈ 3–4 g

• Total fat: ≈ 1–2 g

  • SFA (saturated fatty acids; excessive intake in the overall diet is linked to cardiovascular risk): traces

  • MUFA (monounsaturated fatty acids; generally favourable for lipid profile): traces

  • PUFA (polyunsaturated fatty acids; important for membranes and anti-inflammatory processes): traces

• Dietary fibre: ≈ 30–35 g

• Vitamins: traces of vitamin A and some B-group vitamins

• Minerals: small amounts of calcium, magnesium, potassium, iron (very limited contribution at typical serving sizes)

Key constituents

• Essential oil (volatile fraction):

  • α-bisabolol and bisabolol oxides

  • chamazulene (formed from matricine during distillation)

• Flavonoids: apigenin, luteolin, quercetin and their glycosides

• Coumarins

• Polyacetylenes

• Phenolic acids: caffeic, chlorogenic and related derivatives

• Mucilages and structural plant fibres

Production process

Cultivation

• Grows best in temperate climates and light, well-drained soils.

• Annual crop, established by direct seeding or transplanting.

• Commercial flowering and harvest typically occur in spring–summer.

Harvest

• Flower heads (capitula) are harvested when fully open, as this stage ensures the best content of active and aromatic compounds.

• Harvest may be done manually or with specialised mechanical harvesters.

Post-harvest

• Rapid drying at low temperature with good air circulation to preserve essential oils and phenolics.

• Cleaning, sieving and removal of stems and foreign matter.

• Packaging in bulk or dosed into tea bags, loose-herb packs, or shipped to extraction plants.

Further processing

• Production of:

  • chamomile tea bags and loose infusions

  • hydroalcoholic or glyceric extracts

  • essential oil by steam distillation

  • powdered and standardised extracts for food supplements

  • cosmetic ingredients for skin- and hair-care products

Physical properties

• Dried flower heads: light, low-density material, yellow-white in colour.

• Pleasant sweet, floral, herbaceous aroma.

• Low moisture content, good capacity to absorb hot water during infusion.

Sensory and technological properties

• Aroma: sweet, floral, slightly honey-like, with herbaceous nuances.

• Taste: mild, gently bitter, characteristic chamomile flavour.

• Highly suitable for hot-water extraction; key active compounds and aroma are readily released into infusions.

• Works well in herbal blends as a calming base, helping to round and soften overall flavour.

Food applications

• Herbal infusions and teas (single-herb or blends).

• Flavouring for:

  • desserts and custards

  • ice creams and sorbets

  • functional or “relaxing” beverages

  • specialty bakery products

• Use in flavour extracts for non-caffeinated and evening drinks.

Nutrition & health

• Traditionally associated with:

  • calming and relaxing effects (support for sleep and mild anxiety)

  • digestive support and relief of minor gastrointestinal discomfort

  • soothing effects on mucous membranes and the upper digestive tract

  • mild anti-inflammatory activity linked to flavonoids and bisabolol

• Apigenin, bisabolol and chamazulene are considered key active constituents in many herbal monographs.

• Consumption as an infusion in typical amounts is generally regarded as safe for adults and children, except in cases of specific allergy.

(Traditional uses and experimental data do not replace medical diagnosis or prescribed treatments.)

Portion note

• Typical use: 1–2 g of dried chamomile flower heads per cup (≈ 150–200 ml water), infused for about 5–10 minutes.

Allergens and intolerances

• Possible reactions in people allergic to Asteraceae (Compositae) family plants (e.g. ragweed, arnica).

• Rare cases of photosensitivity or skin irritation can occur with concentrated essential oils or certain topical preparations.

• Chamomile infusion at normal food-use levels is generally well tolerated.

Storage and shelf-life

• Dried chamomile: typically 12–24 months if stored in a cool, dry place, protected from light.

• Use well-sealed containers to avoid loss of aroma and absorption of moisture.

• Essential oil: typically 2–3 years when kept in dark, airtight glass bottles away from heat and light.

Safety and regulatory aspects

• Quality control covers:

  • pesticide residues (MRL)

  • microbiological status (especially for tea bags and dietary supplements)

  • absence of foreign bodies (stones, metals, other plant fragments)

• Production of herbal products and extracts must follow GMP and HACCP principles.

• For food supplements and standardised extracts, specific regulations apply to composition, purity, labelling and any health claims.

Labelling

• Name: “chamomile” / Matricaria chamomilla (or M. recutita).

• Country of origin or place of provenance.

• Batch/lot number, best-before date, storage instructions.

• For infusions: recommended preparation instructions (amount per cup, water temperature, infusion time).

• For blends: full ingredient list in descending order of weight.

Troubleshooting

• Weak aroma or flavour → old product, poor storage (light, heat, oxygen) or overly long storage time.

• Dull or brownish colour → over-drying or oxidation; may indicate reduced quality.

• Overly bitter taste → infusion too long or water too hot; reduce steeping time or temperature.

• Presence of insects or mould → inadequate storage or high humidity; product must be discarded.

Sustainability and supply chain

• Chamomile is typically a low-impact crop, suitable for organic cultivation.

• Can be grown in many temperate regions, allowing local European supply chains.

• Drying extends shelf-life and reduces food waste, with relatively low energy inputs when optimised.

• Flowering fields support pollinators and biodiversity, contributing positively to agroecosystems when managed responsibly.

Main INCI functions (cosmetics)

• Chamomilla Recutita (Matricaria) Flower Extract – soothing, calming and antioxidant; widely used for sensitive or irritated skin.

• Chamomilla Recutita (Matricaria) Flower Water – mild toning and refreshing water for facial and body care.

• Bisabolol (often isolated from chamomile) – anti-irritant and soothing active; used in many products for sensitive skin, post-sun and after-shave applications.

Use levels are defined by cosmetic safety assessments and regulatory requirements.

Conclusion
Chamomile is one of the most important herbal raw materials for infusions, extracts and cosmetic products. Its rich content of essential oils and flavonoids gives it recognised calming and soothing properties in traditional use, while its gentle flavour and wide availability make it a versatile ingredient in foods and beverages. Proper cultivation, drying and storage are essential to maintain aroma, safety and functional quality throughout the supply chain.

Mini-glossary

• SFA – Saturated fatty acids; fats that should be moderated due to their association with increased cardiovascular risk when excessive.

• MUFA – Monounsaturated fatty acids; generally beneficial for blood-lipid profile.

• PUFA – Polyunsaturated fatty acids; important for cellular membranes and anti-inflammatory processes.

• MRL – Maximum Residue Level; legal limit for pesticide residues permitted in foods and herbal materials.

• GMP – Good Manufacturing Practices; standards that ensure hygienic, controlled, traceable production.

• HACCP – Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points; preventive system for identifying and managing food- and feed-safety hazards.

Studies

• Matricaria recutita or German chamomile, is the most widespread and known medicinal plant belonging to the family of Asteraceae, the classic chamomile.
• Anthemis nobilis or Roman Chamomile is the second medicinal plant that is less common, but has similar ingredients to Matricaria recutita. 

Both provide an interesting  essential oil  (the main components of which are bisabololol alpha and its oxides A, B and C, matricin, which is converted into chamazulene for distillation, en-yn-dicycloethers and flavonic derivatives: apigenin, luteoline and apigenin-7-glucoside (3).

In many clinical trials, the anti-inflammatory activity of the ointment containing recutita Matricaria flower extract (treatment of patients suffering from inflammatory dermatosis on the hands, forearms and lower legs) was comparable to that Hydrocortisone 0.25% and higher than 0.75% foreign fluocortix and 5% bufexamac (non-steroidal anti-inflammatory synthetic drugs) (1).

The essential oil of chamomile and alpha bisabolol contained there, has demonstrated antibacterial and antifungal activity  in vitro (mainly against Gram-positive bacteria, Staphylococcus aureus , Bacillus subtilis and fungi Candida albicans ) (2).

The flower is used for herbal teas, tablets, mouthwashes (3).

Despite being the most commonly used herb for sleep disorders, the efficacy and safety of chamomile (Matricaria recutita) for the treatment of primary chronic insomnia is still uncertain. This study found a modest benefit of chamomile over placebo on other sleep diary measures including sleep latency. The data from this study point to the possibility that chamomile extract may provide modest, mixed clinical benefits, at the doses evaluated, to patients with chronic primary insomnia. It is possible, however, that improvements in the chamomile group are due to nontreatment-related events such as natural disease course and regression to the mean (4).

Fragrance. It plays a very important role in the formulation of cosmetic products as it allows perfume to be enhanced, masked or added to the final product, improving its commercial viability.  The consumer always expects to find a pleasant scent in a cosmetic product.

Chamomile studies

References____________________________________________________________________

(1) Blumenthal M, Goldberg A, Brinckann J. Herbal medicine. Expanded Commission E Monographs. German. Newton: Chamomile flower, American Botanical Council; 2000. pp. 57–61.

(2) Schulz V, Hänsel R, Blumenthal M, Tyler VE. Rational phytotherapy. Berlin Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag; 2004. pp. 335–47.

This book is a practice-oriented introduction to phytotherapy. Methodically classified by organic systems and fields of application, it offers a quick insight into dosage, form of application and effects of the most important herbal remedies. Only those herbal remedies that are of pharmacological and clinical efficiency have been considered. The authors are highly experienced in the field of postgraduate medical education, and, with this work, present an indispensable reference book for the medical practice. All practitioners and pharmacists interested in treatment with herbal remedies should have this book at their disposal.

(3) ESCOP Monographs. Matricariae flos. 2nd ed. New York: Thieme; 2003. European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy; pp. 312

(4) Zick SM, Wright BD, Sen A, Arnedt JT. Preliminary examination of the efficacy and safety of a standardized chamomile extract for chronic primary insomnia: a randomized placebo-controlled pilot study. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2011 Sep 22;11:78. doi: 10.1186/1472-6882-11-78. 

Abstract. Background: Despite being the most commonly used herbal for sleep disorders, chamomile's (Matricaria recutita) efficacy and safety for treating chronic primary insomnia is unknown. We examined the preliminary efficacy and safety of chamomile for improving subjective sleep and daytime symptoms in patients with chronic insomnia. Methods: We performed a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled pilot trial in 34 patients aged 18-65 years with DSM-IV primary insomnia for ≥ 6-months. Patients were randomized to 270 mg of chamomile twice daily or placebo for 28-days. The primary outcomes were sleep diary measures. Secondary outcomes included daytime symptoms, safety assessments, and effect size of these measures. Results: There were no significant differences between groups in changes in sleep diary measures, including total sleep time (TST), sleep efficiency, sleep latency, wake after sleep onset (WASO), sleep quality, and number of awakenings. Chamomile did show modest advantage on daytime functioning, although these did not reach statistical significance. Effect sizes were generally small to moderate (Cohen's d ≤ 0.20 to < 0.60) with sleep latency, night time awakenings, and Fatigue Severity Scale (FSS), having moderate effect sizes in favor of chamomile. However, TST demonstrated a moderate effect size in favor of placebo. There were no differences in adverse events reported by the chamomile group compared to placebo. Conclusion: Chamomile could provide modest benefits of daytime functioning and mixed benefits on sleep diary measures relative to placebo in adults with chronic primary insomnia. However, further studies in select insomnia patients would be needed to investigate these conclusions. Trial registration: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT01286324.

Srivastava JK, Shankar E, Gupta S. Chamomile: A herbal medicine of the past with bright future. Mol Med Rep. 2010 Nov 1;3(6):895-901. doi: 10.3892/mmr.2010.377.

Abstract. Chamomile is one of the most ancient medicinal herbs known to mankind. It is a member of Asteraceae/Compositae family and represented by two common varieties viz. German Chamomile (Chamomilla recutita) and Roman Chamomile (Chamaemelum nobile). The dried flowers of chamomile contain many terpenoids and flavonoids contributing to its medicinal properties. Chamomile preparations are commonly used for many human ailments such as hay fever, inflammation, muscle spasms, menstrual disorders, insomnia, ulcers, wounds, gastrointestinal disorders, rheumatic pain, and hemorrhoids. Essential oils of chamomile are used extensively in cosmetics and aromatherapy. Many different preparations of chamomile have been developed, the most popular of which is in the form of herbal tea consumed more than one million cups per day. In this review we describe the use of chamomile in traditional medicine with regard to evaluating its curative and preventive properties, highlight recent findings for its development as a therapeutic agent promoting human health.

Deepa Y, Vijay A, Nivethitha L, Nandhakumar G, Sathiya S, Mooventhan A. Effects of chamomile oil inhalation on sleep quality in young adults with insomnia: A randomized controlled trial. Int J Psychiatry Med. 2025 Sep;60(5):533-542. doi: 10.1177/00912174241301279. 

Abstract. ObjectiveInsomnia is characterized by difficulty falling asleep, staying sleep, or both. Aromatherapy is a commonly used complementary and alternative medicine practice by persons with insomnia. Previous studies have shown that use of chamomile oil during massage therapy improves the quality of sleep (QoS). However, to our knowledge, no randomized controlled trials have examined the effects of chamomile oil inhalation on the treatment of insomnia. The present study evaluated the effect of chamomile oil inhalation on QoS and insomnia severity in persons with insomnia.MethodsA total of 80 participants ages 18-35 with insomnia were randomly assigned to aromatherapy group (AG; n = 40) or a control group (CG; n = 40). Those in the AG group received chamomile oil inhalation, while those in the CG group engaged in their normal routine for 10 minutes a day, daily for 15 days. The Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) and Insomnia Severity Index (ISI) were administered before and after the intervention.ResultsWithin-group analysis showed a significant reduction both in PSQI and ISI scores among those in the AG (P < 0.001 for both scores), whereas the CG reported a significant reduction in PSQI score (P = 0.033) and no significant changes in ISI score (P = 0.068). The between-group analysis after the intervention demonstrated a significant reduction in PSQI and ISI scores in the AG group (P < 0.001 for both) compared to the CG group. No participant in either group reported adverse events during or after the study.ConclusionFifteen days of chamomile oil inhalation before bedtime reduced insomnia severity and enhanced the quality of sleep for young adults suffering from insomnia. Further studies are needed to replicate the results of this study using an active control group.