Black pepper
(Piper nigrum L. — unripe dried fruits)

Description

Black pepper (Piper nigrum L.) is a perennial climbing species of the family Piperaceae, native to the Indo-Malayan region. The plant has a flexible stem with adventitious roots that allow anchorage to vertical supports; the leaves are alternate, ovate to elliptic, with marked venation and a medium-leathery lamina. The inflorescences are pendulous spikes, bearing small sessile flowers with inconspicuous perianth structures. The fruit is a globose drupe (peppercorn) a few millimetres in diameter, with a thin exocarp, a firmer pericarp and a single central seed.

Black pepper is obtained by harvesting the fruits at an intermediate stage of ripeness, when they are still green, followed by rapid drying (traditionally in the sun or using hot air). Drying induces blackening and wrinkling of the pericarp, a reduction in water activity and hardening of the outer surface, while the internal seed remains pale and compact. Green and white pepper are derived from the same species but differ in harvest stage and post-harvest processing.

From a compositional standpoint, black pepper contains a fraction of essential oils (mainly monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes) responsible for its aromatic profile, and piperine, an alkaloid located mainly in the seed and associated with pungency. Minor phenolic compounds, cellulose, starch and a small lipid fraction are also present. The ratio between piperine, volatile aromatic fractions and residual moisture defines the sensory intensity and the rate of aroma release during culinary use.

The structure of the dried drupe, consisting of lignified tissues and a dense seed, provides good physical stability when properly stored (dry environment, limited light exposure, moderate temperature). Grinding produces a granular or powder material, depending on the selected particle size, increasing the exposed surface area and promoting the release of volatile components. Black pepper is used as a flavouring and pungent agent in small quantities in a wide range of food products; the choice between whole or ground form, thermal conditions and contact time with the food matrix influence the extraction of characteristic compounds and the final aromatic profile.
• Black pepper is more pungent and aromatic than white or green pepper, with woody, resinous, and slightly citrus notes.

Indicative nutritional values (per 100 g of dried peppercorns)

• Energy: 250–270 kcal
• Protein: 10–12 g
• Total fat: 3–4 g
• Carbohydrates: 60–65 g (mainly starch and fiber)
• Dietary fiber: 25–30 g
• Sodium: <10 mg
• Micronutrients (typical): Calcium 400–450 mg; Iron 8–10 mg; Magnesium 180–200 mg; Potassium 1200–1300 mg; Manganese 2–4 mg; Vitamin K 150–180 µg

Key constituents

• Piperine (5–9%): alkaloid responsible for pungency and stimulating, digestive properties.
• Essential oils (1–2.5%): β-caryophyllene, limonene, pinene, sabinene, linalool, terpineol — main contributors to aroma and antimicrobial effects.
• Phenolic compounds, resins, starch, and flavonoids with antioxidant properties.

Production process

• Harvest of unripe green berries → brief blanching in hot water (to facilitate dehydration and color fixing) → sun or hot-air drying (50–60 °C) for 5–7 days → cleaning, grading, and packaging.
• High-quality peppercorns are uniform, glossy, and free from dust or mold.

Physical properties

• Appearance: spherical, wrinkled black or dark brown grains, 3–5 mm in diameter.
• Odor: spicy, warm, woody.
• Flavor: intense, pungent, and persistent.
• Bulk density: 500–600 g/L; highly hygroscopic.

Sensory and technological properties

• Provides strong aroma and pungency that stimulate taste and smell.
• Pairs well with a wide range of dishes: meats, fish, vegetables, legumes, cheeses, and spicy desserts.
• Piperine and volatile oils degrade under prolonged heat — best added at the end of cooking or freshly ground.
• Also used as a natural preservative for its antimicrobial activity.

Food applications

• Culinary: universal seasoning, used whole, crushed, or ground.
• Food industry: flavoring in sausages, spiced meats, snacks, ready meals, sauces, preserves, and spice blends.
• Beverages: component in spiced liqueurs and aromatic spirits.

Nutrition and health

Black pepper has multiple functional properties:
• Digestive: stimulates gastric and pancreatic secretions.
• Antioxidant: phenolic compounds counteract oxidative stress.
• Bioenhancer: piperine increases the bioavailability of nutrients and phytocompounds (e.g., curcumin).
• Excessive use may irritate gastric mucosa or trigger reflux in sensitive individuals.
Recommended intake: ≤ 2 g/day for adults.

Serving note: 0.2–0.5 g per dish; 0.1–0.3% in processed foods.

Allergens and intolerances

• Black pepper contains no recognized allergens under Regulation (EU) 1169/2011.
• Rarely causes allergic or intolerance reactions.
• May induce mild respiratory or gastric irritation in sensitive individuals if inhaled as powder.
• Possible cross-contamination in facilities handling mixed spices (e.g., mustard, celery, sesame).
• Naturally gluten-free and lactose-free.

Quality and specifications (typical values)

• Moisture ≤ 12%
• Total ash ≤ 6%
• Acid-insoluble ash ≤ 1.5%
• Piperine 5–9%
• Essential oils 1–2.5%
• Microbiology: compliant with ISO standards (Salmonella absent/25 g)
• Pesticides and mycotoxins: within EU limits (aflatoxin B1 ≤ 5 µg/kg)

Storage and shelf-life

• Store in a cool, dry, dark place, in airtight packaging.
• Avoid exposure to light, heat, and humidity.
• Shelf-life: 24–36 months (whole peppercorns), 12–18 months (ground).

Safety and regulatory

• Compliant with Regulation (EC) 1881/2006 on contaminants and additives.
• Produced under GMP/HACCP certified systems.
• Steam sterilization or irradiation may be applied for microbial control.

Labeling

• Product name: “black pepper” (Piper nigrum L.).
• Indicate origin (e.g., India, Vietnam, Indonesia, Malaysia).
• Product form (whole/ground), net weight, storage instructions, best-before date.
• For industrial use: batch number, piperine content, moisture, and microbiological certification.

Troubleshooting

• Loss of aroma → exposure to light or air → use opaque, sealed containers.
• Moldy smell → excessive humidity → dry and restore proper storage conditions.
• Color fading → prolonged storage or improper drying → store in dark, stable environments.
• Bitter taste → over-dried or overheated during processing → use gentle drying at controlled temperature.

Sustainability and supply chain

• Grown in tropical agroforestry systems, mainly in India, Vietnam, and Indonesia.
• Encourage sustainable cultivation: reduced pesticide use, efficient water management, and shade-grown methods.
• Processing: wastewater treatment with BOD/COD reduction, recyclable packaging, energy optimization.
• By-products (pericarp, residues) suitable for compost or extraction of aromatic compounds.

Main INCI functions (cosmetics)

• Piper Nigrum Fruit Extract / Oil — skin-conditioning, toning, warming, and microcirculation-stimulating properties.
• Used in slimming creams, toning balms, and aromatherapeutic products within dermal safety limits.

Conclusion

Black pepper is a universal and functional spice, valued for its intense aroma and bioactive properties linked to piperine and essential oils. Beyond its culinary importance, it supports digestion and nutrient bioavailability. When properly stored, it maintains its aromatic, nutritional, and microbiological qualities over time.

Mini-glossary

• SFA/MUFA/PUFA: saturated / monounsaturated / polyunsaturated fatty acids — a balanced ratio supports health.
• GMP/HACCP: good manufacturing practices / hazard analysis and critical control points — safety management systems.
• BOD/COD: biochemical / chemical oxygen demand — indicators of organic load in wastewater.
• aw: water activity — fraction of free water available for microbial growth.
• MAP: modified atmosphere packaging — protective gas mixture preserving aroma and safety.

Studies

In the composition of Piper Nigrum, monoterpenes represent the major components with the following percentages (1):

• delta-carene 19,72%
• Limonene 18,73%
• alpha-pinene 10,39%

Overall, all components of Green pepper have been shown to contribute to antioxidant, antitumor, antibacterial, antifungal, analgesic, anti-inflammatory activity (2).

Among the various alkaloids present in Green pepper, piperine, which gives pepper its pungent taste, plays an important role as it has the ability to mitigate cancer-related symptoms. This study discusses the cellular mechanisms underlying the chemo-preventive action of this natural alkaloid (3).

Not recommended for people suffering from inflammation:

• gastric ulcer
• gastritis
• haemorrhoids
• hypertension
• gastro-esophageal reflux
• anal fissure

Piper nigrum studies

References________________________________________________

(1)  Nikolić M, Stojković D, Glamočlija J, Ćirić A, Marković T, Smiljković M, Soković M. Could essential oils of green and black pepper be used as food preservatives?  J Food Sci Technol. 2015 Oct;52(10):6565-73. doi: 10.1007/s13197-015-1792-5.

Abstract. Black and green pepper essential oils were used in this study in order to determine the chemical composition, in vitro antimicrobial activity against food spoilage microorganisms and in situ oils effect on food microorganism, after incorporation in chicken soup, by suggested methodology for calculation of Growth inhibition concentrations (GIC50). Chemical analysis revealed a total of 34 components. The major constituent of black pepper oil was trans-caryophyllene (30.33 %), followed by limonene (12.12 %), while β-pinene (24.42 %), δ3-carene (19.72 %), limonene (18.73 %) and α-pinene (10.39 %) were dominant compounds in green pepper oil. Antimicrobial activity was determined by microdilution technique and minimal inhibitory (MIC) and minimal bactericidal/fungicidal concentrations (MBC/MFC) were determined. Green pepper oil showed stronger antibacterial and antifungal activity (MIC 0.50–1.87; MBC 0.63–2.5 mg/ml; MIC 0.07–0.16; MFC 0.13–1.25 mg/ml) against black pepper oil (MIC 0.07–3.75; MBC 0.60–10.00 mg/ml; MIC 0.63–5.00; MFC 1.25–10.00 mg/ml. Oils successfully inhibited the growth of S. aureus in chicken soup in a dose dependent manner. GIC50 values were calculated after 24, 48 and 72 h and were in range of 0.156–0.689 mg/ml. The 50 % inhibitory concentrations (IC50) of EOs were 36.84 and 38.77 mg/ml with in 2, 2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assay respectively.. The obtained results revealed that black and green pepper volatiles are efficient in controlling the growth of known food-spoilage microorganisms.

(2) Liu H, Zheng J, Liu P, Zeng F. Pulverizing processes affect the chemical quality and thermal property of black, white, and green pepper (Piper nigrum L.) J Food Sci Technol. 2018 Jun;55(6):2130-2142. doi: 10.1007/s13197-018-3128-8.

Abstract. In this study, the effects of different pulverizing methods on the chemical attributes and thermal properties of black, white and green pepper were evaluated. Cryogenic grinding minimally damaged the lipid, moisture, crude protein, starch, non-volatile ether extract, piperine, essential oil and the typical pepper essential oil compounds of the spices. The pulverizing methods and storage significantly affected the compositions of the fatty acid in the peppers, except for palmitic acid and lignoceric acid. The amino acid contents and the thermo-gravimetric analysis curve were hardly influenced by the grinding techniques. The use of cryogenic grinding to prepare pepper ensured the highest quality of pepper products. Regardless of grinding technique, the values of moisture, piperine, unsaturated fatty acids, essential oil, monoterpenes, and the absolute concentrations of typical pepper essential oil constituents (except caryophyllene oxide) decreased, whereas the amino acid, lipid, protein, starch, and non-volatile ether extract content as well as the thermal properties were insignificantly changed after storage at 4 °C for 6 months.

(3) Zadorozhna M, Tataranni T, Mangieri D. Piperine: role in prevention and progression of cancer. Mol Biol Rep. 2019 Jul 4. doi: 10.1007/s11033-019-04927-z.

Abstract. Cancer is among the leading causes of death worldwide. Several pharmacological protocols have been developed in order to block tumor progression often showing partial efficacy and severe counterproductive effects. It is now conceived that a healthy lifestyle coupled with the consumption of certain phytochemicals can play a protective role against tumor development and progression. According to this vision, it has been introduced the concept of “chemoprevention”. This term refers to natural agents with the capability to interfere with the tumorigenesis and metastasis, or at least, attenuate the cancer-related symptoms. Piperine (1-Piperoylpiperidine), a main extract of Piper longum and Piper nigrum, is an alkaloid with a long history of medicinal use. In fact, it exhibits a variety of biochemical and pharmaceutical properties, including chemopreventive activities without significant cytotoxic effects on normal cells, at least at doses < of 250 µg/ml. The aim of this review is to discuss the relevant molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying the chemopreventive action of this natural alkaloid.