Lavender (Lavandula angustifolia Mill.)

Lavender is an evergreen shrub species of the Lamiaceae family, widely cultivated in temperate and Mediterranean climates. It shows a bushy growth habit, with woody stems at the base and herbaceous portions in the upper parts. The leaves are usually narrow, linear to lanceolate, opposite, grey-green in colour and covered with fine pubescence. The inflorescences are terminal spikes bearing numerous small tubular flowers, typically violet to bluish (with variation depending on the cultivar), and are intensely aromatic. The plant is nectar-producing and plays an important role for pollinating insects.

From a cultivation standpoint, lavender prefers full sun exposure and well-drained soils, ranging from light to medium texture, including moderately calcareous substrates. It is considered a hardy species, with good drought tolerance once established, while it is sensitive to waterlogging, which may promote root rot and reduce stand longevity. The plant tolerates relatively low temperatures, but severe, prolonged frost can damage the above-ground portions. Regular pruning helps maintain a compact habit and promotes the formation of new flowering shoots. Biomass and essential oil yield are influenced by cultivar, planting density, nutrient management, soil and climate conditions, and harvest timing.

From a compositional point of view, the most relevant plant parts are the flowering tops, which contain water, structural fibres and a fraction of essential oil located in specific glandular structures. Lavender oil is characterised mainly by linalool and linalyl acetate, together with other monoterpenes and oxygenated derivatives in variable proportions (for example terpinen-4-ol, lavandulol, cineole). Flavonoids, phenolic acids and trace amounts of minerals such as potassium and calcium are also present. The quality and profile of the essential oil vary according to genetic material, cultivation conditions, harvest stage and distillation method.

In the food sector, lavender has limited but specific uses as an aromatic component in confectionery, herbal blends and baked products, where use must be carefully controlled to avoid excessively strong notes. Far more important is its herbal and technical use, where flowering tops and essential oil are employed in the preparation of herbal teas, extracts, plant-based formulations and products intended for flavouring various matrices. The plant is also grown as an ornamental species and in specialised plantations aimed at essential oil production.

The quality assessment of lavender destined for processing considers the uniformity and integrity of the flowering material, its cleanliness (absence of foreign matter or excessive woody portions), the colour of the dried mass, the essential oil content and the aromatic profile (ratio between key constituents). Appropriate cultivar selection, cultivation practices, harvest timing and drying and storage conditions are crucial to preserving the technological and sensory characteristics of the raw material.

• Lavandula officinalis, Lavandula spica
• Lavandula stoechas
• Lavandula latifolia
• Lavandula angustifolia
• Lavandula dentata 

Botanical classification (APG IV system)

• Common name: Lavender

• Botanical name: Lavandula angustifolia Mill.

• Kingdom: Plantae

• Clade: Angiosperms → Eudicots → Asterids

• Order: Lamiales

• Family: Lamiaceae

Indicative nutritional values per 100 g (dried flowering tops)*

* Lavender is normally used in very small quantities (as an aromatic herb or herbal infusion), so its real nutritional contribution per serving is minimal, despite the per-100 g values.

Mini-glossary of terms/acronyms

• kcal = Kilocalories, unit of measurement for the energy provided by 100 g of product.

• Dried herb = Plant material that has been dehydrated to reduce water content; this concentrates nutrients and energy compared with the fresh plant, but typical serving sizes are very small.

Plant characteristics

• Habit: Small perennial evergreen subshrub (30–80 cm tall); woody base; erect, branched stems with dense foliage; long-lived and drought tolerant.

• Leaves: Opposite, linear to lanceolate (2–6 cm long), entire margin, gray-green, covered with fine downy hairs (trichomes) containing oil glands.

• Flowers: June–August; small, tubular, bluish-violet, strongly aromatic; arranged in dense terminal spikes on long peduncles; calyx tubular and persistent.

• Fruits: Small, smooth, brown nutlets (four per calyx) containing single seeds.

• Roots: Woody and fibrous, providing strong anchorage and good drought resistance.

• Fragrance: Sweet, floral, and herbaceous — a defining trait due to its essential oil composition.

Chemical composition (main constituents in flowers and essential oil)

• Essential oil: Linalool, linalyl acetate, lavandulol, terpinen-4-ol, cineole, camphor.

• Phenolic compounds: Rosmarinic acid, caffeic acid (antioxidant and antimicrobial effects).

• Flavonoids: Luteolin, apigenin, quercetin derivatives.

• Coumarins and tannins: Contribute to mild astringent and spasmolytic effects.

Cultivation and growing conditions

• Climate: Prefers Mediterranean climates; tolerates heat and drought once established; sensitive to excessive humidity and frost during early growth.

• Exposure: Full sun; essential for abundant flowering and high oil yield.

• Soil: Well-drained, light, sandy or calcareous; pH 6–8; avoid waterlogging.

• Planting: Spring or autumn; spacing 40–60 cm; pruning after flowering promotes compact growth.

• Irrigation: Moderate; reduce in winter; avoid overwatering.

• Propagation: By cuttings, layering, or seeds (for specific varieties).

• Pests and diseases: May be affected by root rot (Phytophthora), leaf spot, and spittlebugs; generally resistant to most pests due to aromatic oils.

Uses and benefits (traditional and supported by research)

• Relaxant and anxiolytic: Essential oil and infusions used to reduce anxiety, restlessness, and mild insomnia.

• Antimicrobial and antiseptic: Topical use of diluted oil in minor skin irritations and wounds.

• Anti-inflammatory and analgesic: Mild relief for muscular tension and headaches (via aromatherapy or massage).

• Digestive aid: Infusions occasionally used for mild digestive discomfort.

• Aromatherapy: Widely used for mood enhancement, relaxation, and improved sleep quality.

Clinical studies suggest lavender essential oil (especially Lavandula angustifolia) may support anxiety reduction and sleep quality improvement; however, it should not replace prescribed medical treatments.

Applications

• Herbal medicine: Infusions, tinctures, essential oil, and hydrosols.

• Cosmetics and perfumery: Used in soaps, creams, shampoos, and perfumes for its scent and soothing skin effects.

• Culinary: Edible flowers used to flavor sugars, baked goods, and beverages (in small amounts).

• Ornamental: Popular garden plant for hedges, borders, and pollinator-friendly gardens.

• Aromatherapy: Diffusers, massage blends, and baths.

Harvesting and processing

• Harvesting: Flower spikes cut at early bloom (before full opening) for optimal oil yield.

• Drying: In shade, well-ventilated area to preserve color and aroma.

• Storage: Airtight containers away from light and humidity.

• Essential oil extraction: Steam distillation of flowering tops; yield ~1–3%.

Environmental considerations

Lavender promotes biodiversity by attracting bees and other pollinators. Its low water requirement and pest resistance make it suitable for sustainable cultivation in dry regions. When cultivated industrially, soil conservation and organic methods are encouraged to preserve volatile compound quality.

Safety, contraindications, interactions

Generally regarded as safe at customary doses.

• Topical use: Essential oil should be diluted (2–3%) before application to prevent skin irritation.

• Oral use: Avoid excessive ingestion; may cause nausea or drowsiness in sensitive individuals.

• Pregnancy/lactation: Occasional external use considered safe; oral use only under medical supervision.

• Allergies: Rare; patch testing recommended for sensitive skin.

• Drug interactions: May enhance sedative effects of CNS depressants.

Common preparations (general, non-therapeutic use)

• Infusion: 1–2 g dried flowers per 200 ml hot water, 1–2 times daily.

• Aromatherapy: 2–3 drops essential oil in diffuser or warm bath.

• Massage oil: 3% dilution of essential oil in carrier oil (e.g., almond, jojoba).

• Sachet or pillow: Dried flowers for relaxation and fragrance.

Studies

This study considers that, in the light of literature reports as a medical plant effective in the treatment of inflammation, depression and stress, due to its sedative and anxiolytic action, thrombotic and antimicrobial properties, the results demonstrate DNA-protective activity (1).

Lavender's anti-inflammatory activity is due to its high polyphenol content (2).

References________________________________________________________________________

(1) Kozics K, Srancikova A, Sedlackova E, Horvathova E, Melusova M, Melus V, Krajcovicova Z, Sramkova M. Antioxidant potential of essential oil from Lavandula angustifolia in in vitro and ex vivo cultured liver cells. Neoplasma. 2017;64(4):485-493. doi: 10.4149/neo_2017_401.

Abstract. Lavender is a commonly used herb in traditional medicine in Asia and Europe. It has been reported to be an effective medical plant in treating inflammation, depression and stress, thanks to its sedative and anxiolytic action, thrombotic, and antimicrobial properties. In the present study we investigated the protective effects of essential oil from Lavandula angustifolia (LO) against hydrogen peroxide and tert-butyl hydroperoxide -induced DNA damage. Also the effects of LO on the levels of enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants (SOD-superoxide dismutase, GPx-glutathione peroxidase, GSH-glutathione) were evaluated in in vitro (human hepatoma cell line HepG2) and in ex vivo (freshly isolated rat hepatocytes) systems. The results showed that the oxidant-induced DNA lesions were significantly reduced in both systems pre-treated with the Lavandula angustifolia. The observed DNA-protective activity could be explained by both elevation of GPx activity in cells pre-treated with LO and antioxidant activity of LO.

(2) Hajhashemi V, Ghannadi A, Sharif B. Anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties of the leaf extracts and essential oil of Lavandula angustifolia Mill. J Ethnopharmacol. 2003 Nov;89(1):67-71. doi: 10.1016/s0378-8741(03)00234-4.

Abstract. Extracts obtained from the leaves of Lavandula angustifolia Mill. (Lamiaceae) are used in Iranian folk medicine as remedies for the treatment of various inflammatory diseases. For evaluation of its probable analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects, hydroalcoholic extract, polyphenolic fraction and essential oil of the leaves of the herb were prepared and their analgesic effects were studied in mice using formalin and acetic acid-induced writhing tests. Carrageenan test in rats was used for assessment of anti-inflammatory activity of above-mentioned fractions. Results showed that while the hydroalcoholic extract (400-1600 mg/kg, p.o.) inhibited only the second phase of formalin test, the polyphenolic fraction (800 and 1600 mg/kg, p.o.) and essential oil (100 and 200 mg/kg, p.o.) suppressed both phases. In acetic acid-induced writhing test, polyphenolic fraction (400 and 800 mg/kg, p.o.) and essential oil (100 and 200 mg/kg, p.o.) reduced the number of abdominal constrictions. Essential oil at a dose of 200mg/kg also inhibited carrageenan-induced paw edema. Results of the present study confirm the traditional use of Lavandula angustifolia for the treatment of painful and inflammatory conditions and calls for further investigations to determine the active chemical constituent(s).

Adaszyńska-Skwirzyńska M, Dzięcioł M, Szczerbińska D. Lavandula angustifolia Essential Oils as Effective Enhancers of Fluconazole Antifungal Activity against Candida albicans. Molecules. 2023 Jan 25;28(3):1176. doi: 10.3390/molecules28031176.

Abstract. The increasing prevalence of Candida albicans resistance to commercial antifungal agents in recent decades has prompted modern medicine and veterinary medicine to search for combined treatment options. The aim of the study was to determine the activity of essential oils from different cultivars and morphological parts of the medicinal lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) in combination with fluconazole against Candida albicans ATCC 10231 strain. The effect of the combination of lavender essential oil with fluconazole was tested using the checkerboard method, and the obtained results were interpreted on the basis of fractional inhibitory concentration indices (FICIs). A synergistic interaction was found for all combinations of fluconazole with essential oils isolated both from flowers and leafy stalks of two tested lavender cultivars: 'Blue River' and 'Ellagance Purple'. The observed enhancement effect of fluconazole antifungal activity was significantly stronger in the case of essential oils obtained from flowers and leafy stalks of 'Blue River' cultivar. Analogous studies were performed for linalool, one of the main components of lavender essential oils, and a similar synergistic interaction with fluconazole was found. 

Tundis R, Grande F, Occhiuzzi MA, Sicari V, Loizzo MR, Cappello AR. Lavandula angustifolia mill. (Lamiaceae) ethanol extract and its main constituents as promising agents for the treatment of metabolic disorders: chemical profile, in vitro biological studies, and molecular docking. J Enzyme Inhib Med Chem. 2023 Dec;38(1):2269481. doi: 10.1080/14756366.2023.2269481. 

Abstract. Lavandula angustifolia Mill. (lavender) is one of the most used medicinal plants. Herein, we chemically characterised and investigated the antioxidant properties and the capability to inhibit key enzymes for the treatment of type 2 diabetes (TD2) and obesity such as pancreatic lipase, α-glucosidase, and α-amylase of the ethanolic extract of two lavender samples (La1 and La2) from southern Italy. Both extracts significantly inhibited α-glucosidase, while La1 inhibited α-amylase and lipase more effectively than La2. To investigate whether these properties could be due to a direct interaction of the main constituents of the extracts with the targeted enzymes, molecular docking studies have been performed. As a result, the selected compounds were able to interact with the key residues of the binding site of the three proteins, thus supporting biological data. Current findings indicate the new potential of lavender ethanolic extract for the development of novel agents for T2D and obesity.

Mijatovic S, Stankovic JA, Calovski IC, Dubljanin E, Pljevljakusic D, Bigovic D, Dzamic A. Antifungal Activity of Lavandula angustifolia Essential Oil against Candida albicans: Time-Kill Study on Pediatric Sputum Isolates. Molecules. 2022 Sep 24;27(19):6300. doi: 10.3390/molecules27196300.

Abstract. The aim of our study was to determine the susceptibility of 15 Candida albicans sputum isolates on fluconazole and caspofungin, as well as the antifungal potential of Lavandula angustifolia essential oil (LAEO). The commercial LAEO was analyzed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The antifungal activity was evaluated using EUCAST protocol. A killing assay was performed to evaluate kinetics of 2% LAEO within 30 min treatment. LAEO with major constituents' linalool (33.4%) and linalyl acetate (30.5%) effective inhibited grows of C. albicans in concentration range 0.5-2%. Fluconazole activity was noted in 67% of the isolates with MICs in range 0.06-1 µg/mL. Surprisingly, 40% of isolates were non-wild-type (non-WT), while MICs for WT ranged between 0.125-0.25 µg/mL. There were no significant differences in the LAEO MICs among fluconazole-resistant and fluconazole-susceptible sputum strains (p = 0.31) and neither among caspofungin non-WT and WT isolates (p = 0.79). The 2% LAEO rapidly achieved 50% growth reduction in all tested strains between 0.2 and 3.5 min. Within 30 min, the same LAEO concentration exhibited a 99.9% reduction in 27% isolates. This study demonstrated that 2% solution of LAEO showed a significant antifungal activity which is equally effective against fluconazole and caspofungin susceptible and less-susceptible strains.

Tardugno R, Serio A, Pellati F, D'Amato S, Chaves López C, Bellardi MG, Di Vito M, Savini V, Paparella A, Benvenuti S. Lavandula x intermedia and Lavandula angustifolia essential oils: phytochemical composition and antimicrobial activity against foodborne pathogens. Nat Prod Res. 2019 Nov;33(22):3330-3335. doi: 10.1080/14786419.2018.1475377. 

Abstract. Four cultivars (cv) of Lavandula x intermedia ('Abrialis', 'Alba', 'Rinaldi Ceroni' (R.C.) and 'Sumiens') were cultivated in Italy and their essential oils (EOs) were distilled from Alfalfa Mosaic Virus-free plants. These EOs and one from L. angustifolia Miller were chemically characterised by GC-MS and GC-FID. Antimicrobial activity was evaluated against Listeria monocytogenes (24 strains) and Salmonella enterica (10 food strains). Minimal inhibitory concentrations (MIC) ≥ 10.0 μL/mL inhibited Salmonella (cv 'R.C.' was the most active); MIC of 0.3 μL/mL for cv 'Abrialis' and 'R.C.' inhibited L. monocytogenes, revealing noticeable activity, especially on clinical strains. This activity appears related to EOs composition. Particularly cv 'Abrialis' and 'R.C.' showing the highest antimicrobial activity, were rich in the specific constituents: linalool (38.17 and 61.98%), camphor (8.97 and 10.30%), 1,8-cineole (6.89 and 8.11%, respectively). These EOs could find potential applications in food biopreservation and in surface decontamination, even in hospitals, and deserve deeper investigations.